Birds of Singapore

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Singapore has 367 species of birds on the official checklist. In addition to these are some ornamental birds, escapees and free-ranging birds from the Singapore Zoo or Jurong Bird Park, making a total of about 400 bird species.
Contents [hide]
1 List of birds
1.1 Order Galliformes (Fowls)
1.2 Order Anseriformes (Waterfowls)
1.3 Order Podicipediformes (Grebes)
1.4 Order Procellariiformes (Tubenoses)
1.5 Order Pelecaniformes (Pelicans and relatives)
1.6 Order Ciconiiformes (Herons and relatives)
1.7 Order Falconiformes (Birds of prey)
1.8 Order Turniciformes (Buttonquails)
1.9 Order Gruiformes (Cranes and relatives)
1.10 Order Charadriiformes (Shorebirds)
1.11 Order Columbiformes (Pigeons)
1.12 Order Psittaciformes (Parrots)
1.13 Order Cuculiformes (Cuckoos and relatives)
1.14 Order Strigiformes (Owls)
1.15 Order Caprimulgiformes (Nightjars and relatives)
1.16 Order Apodiformes (Swifts)
1.17 Order Coraciiformes (Kingfishers and relatives)
1.18 Order Trogoniformes (Trogons)
1.19 Order Piciformes (Woodpeckers and relatives)
1.20 Order Passeriformes (Perching birds)
1.20.1 Family Pittidae (Pittas)
1.20.2 Family Eurylaimidae (Broadbills)
1.20.3 Family Acanthizidae (Gerygones and relatives)
1.20.4 Family Pachycephalidae (Whistlers and relatives)
1.20.5 Family Dicruridae (Monarchs, paradise flycatchers, drongos and relatives)
1.20.6 Family Prionopidae (Helmetshrikes and relatives)
1.20.7 Family Campephagidae (Cuckoo-shrikes, trillers, minivets and relatives)
1.20.8 Family Oriolidae (Old World orioles)
1.20.9 Family Corvidae (Crows and relatives)
1.20.10 Family Irenidae (Fairy bluebirds)
1.20.11 Family Chloropseidae (Leafbirds)
1.20.12 Family Laniidae (Shrikes)
1.20.13 Family Aegithinidae (Ioras)
1.20.14 Family Turdidae (Thrushes)
1.20.15 Family Muscicapidae (Old World flycatchers)
1.20.16 Family Sturnidae (Starlings, mynas, oxpeckers)
1.20.17 Family Hirundinidae (Swallows)
1.20.18 Family Pycnonotidae (Bulbuls)
1.20.19 Family Sylviidae (Old World warblers)
1.20.20 Family Timaliidae (Old World babblers)
1.20.21 Family Zosteropidae (White-eyes)
1.20.22 Family Dicaeidae (Flowerpeckers)
1.20.23 Family Nectariniidae (Sunbirds and spiderhunters)
1.20.24 Family Motacillidae (Wagtails, pipits and relatives)
1.20.25 Family Ploceidae (Weavers and relatives)
1.20.26 Family Estrildidae (Estrildid finches)
1.20.27 Family Viduidae (Indigobirds and Whydahs)
1.20.28 Family Fringillidae (True Finches)
1.20.29 Family Emberizidae (Buntings and relatives)
1.20.30 Family Passeridae (Old World sparrows)
2 See also
3 References
4 External links
[edit]List of birds

Abundance
VC = Very Common C = Common U = Uncommon
R = Rare VR = Very Rare Ex = Extinct
Status
I = Introduced rI = Reintroduced Es = Escapee
O = Ornamental F = Free-ranging RB = Resident Breeder
R = Resident WV = Winter Visitor PM = Passage Migrant
MB = Migrant Breeder V = Vagrant NBV = Non-breeding Visitor
Birding spots
BB = Bukit Batok BC = Bukit Brown Cemetery BG = Botanic Gardens
BT = Bukit Timah BW = Bidadari/Woodleigh CF = Central Forests
CR = Changi Reclaimed Land FC = Fort Canning JL = Jurong Lake
JS = Johor Strait KB = Khatib Bongsu KD = Kranji Dam/Reservoir
KM = Kranji Marsh KR = Kent Ridge Park LH = Lorong Halus
ME = Marina East MF = Mt Faber MM = Mandai Mudflat
MS = Marina South NT = Neo Tiew Lane PG = Punggol Grassland
PH = Pulau Hantu PP = Pulau Punggol PR = Pasir Ris
PS = Pulau Semakau PT = Pulau Tekong PU = Pulau Ubin
PY = Poyan SB = Sungei Buloh SE = Serangoon Estuary
SG = Simpang Grassland SJ = St John's Island SL = Seletar
SS = Singapore Strait ST = Sentosa TB = Telok Blangah Hill
TG = Tuas Grassland TP = Tampines WC = West Coast
[edit]Order Galliformes (Fowls)
Family Phasianidae (Pheasants and relatives)
Blue-breasted Quail (Coturnix chinensis) - U/RB - CR, LH, NT, PG, PP, SB, TG
Red Junglefowl (Gallus gallus) - U/RB+IRB - RB: PU. IRB: Northern and Western Singapore
Black Wood Partridge (Melanoperdix nigra) - Ex/RB
Crestless Fireback (Lophura erythropthalma) - Ex/RB
Malaysian Peacock Pheasant (Polyplectron malacense) - Ex/RB
Great Argus Pheasant (Argusianus argus) - Ex/RB
[edit]Order Anseriformes (Waterfowls)
Family Anatidae (Ducks, geese and swans)
Mute Swan (Cygnus olor) - U/O - BG
Black Swan (Cygnus atratus) - U/O - BG
Domestic Goose (Anser anser) - U/O - BG
Cotton Pygmy Goose (Nettapus coromandelianus) - VR/NBV, Ex/R - NBV: KM. R: LH, PY
Lesser Whistling Duck (Dendrocygna javanica) - C/RB - BG, KM, LH, MS, SB, SE, SL, WC
Wandering Whistling Duck (Dendrocygna arcuata) - U/IRB - BG, MS
Gadwall (Anas strepera) - VR/V
Northern Shoveler (Anas clypeata) - R/WV - CR, LH, SB
Eurasian Wigeon (Anas penelope) - VR/V
Garganey (Anas querquedula) - R/WV - CR, LH
Northern Pintail (Anas acuta) - VR/WV - PY
Common Teal (Anas crecca) - VR/V
Tufted Duck (Aythya fuligula) - VR/V - CR
Radjah Shelduck (Tadorna radjah) - U/O - BG
Mandarin Duck (Aix galericulata) - U/O - BG
[edit]Order Podicipediformes (Grebes)
Family Podicepidae
Little Grebe (Tachybaptus ruficollis) - U/RB - LH, KR, NT, Singapore Quarry, TP
[edit]Order Procellariiformes (Tubenoses)
Family Hydrobatidae (Storm-petrels)
Swinhoe's Storm-petrel (Oceanodroma monorhis) - U/PM - PU, SS
Wilson's Storm-petrel (Oceanites oceanicus) - VR/V - SS
Family Procellariidae (Shearwaters)
Wedge-tailed Shearwater (Puffinus pacificus) - VR/V - CR, SS
Short-tailed Shearwater (Puffinus tenuirostris) - VR/V - SS, Woodlands
Streaked Shearwater (Calonectris leucomelas) - VR/V - Singapore Harbour
[edit]Order Pelecaniformes (Pelicans and relatives)
Family Pelecanidae (Pelicans)
Dalmatian Pelican (Pelecanus crispus) - VR/F - JL
Australian Pelican (Pelecanus conspicillatus) - VR/F - Admiralty Park, Pioneer Circle, JL
Family Sulidae (Gannets and boobies)
Brown Booby (Sula leucogaster) - VR/V
Family Fregatidae (Frigatebirds)
Christmas Island Frigatebird (Fregata andrewsi) - VR/V - PU, SB
Lesser Frigatebird (Fregata ariel) - VR/V
Family Phalacrocoracidae (Cormorants and shags)
Great Cormorant (Phalacrocorax carbo) - U/F - CR, KD, MM, TG
Family Anhingidae (Darters)
Oriental Darter (Anhinga melanogaster) - VR/F - NT
[edit]Order Ciconiiformes (Herons and relatives)
Family Ciconiidae (Storks)
Milky Stork (Mycteria cinerea) - U/F - Admiralty Park, JL, SB
Painted Stork (Mycteria leucocephala) - U/F - Admiralty Park, JL, SB
Lesser Adjutant (Leptoptilos javanicus) - Ex/RB, VR/Es+V - SB, SE, SG
Family Ardeidae (Herons, egrets and bitterns)
Grey Heron (Ardea cinerea) - C/RB - Waterbodies
Purple Heron (Ardea purpurea) - C/RB - Grassfields, Waterbodies
Great-billed Heron (Ardea sumatrana) - R/RB - JL, KR, PU, SB, Southern Islands, TG
Great Egret (Ardea alba) - C/WV - Waterbodies
Intermediate Egret (Mesophoyx intermedia) - C/WV - Grassfields, Waterbodies
Little Egret (Egretta garzetta) - VC/RWV - Waterbodies
Chinese Egret (Egretta eulophotes) - R/WV - CR, LH, PR, PU, SB, SE, SL
Pacific Reef Egret (Egretta sacra) - U/R - CR, PH, PU, SE, Siglap Canal, Sungei Punggol
Cattle Egret (Bubulcus ibis) - VC/F+WV - Grassfields
Chinese Pond Heron (Ardeola bacchus) - C/WV - CR, JL, LH, MS
Javan Pond Heron (Ardeola speciosa) - R/WV - LH, SB, SE
Striated Heron (Butorides striatus) - VC/RBWV - Waterbodies
Black-crowned Night Heron (Nycticorax nycticorax) - C/RB - Waterbodies
Malayan Night Heron (Gorsachius melanolophus) - R/WVPM - BW, CF, JL, BG
Cinnamon Bittern (Ixobrychus cinnamomeus) - U/RBWV - BW, JL, LH, NT, SB, TG
Schrenck's Bittern (Ixobrychus eurhythmus) - R/WV - CR, JL, LH, Sengkang, SB, TG
Black Bittern (Ixobrychus flavicollis) - U/WVPM - BG, CF, Hindhede Quarry, JL, LH, SB
Yellow Bittern (Ixobrychus sinensis) - C/WV - Reedbeds
Great Bittern (Botaurus stellaris) - VR/V
Family Threskiornithidae (Ibises and Spoonbills)
Glossy Ibis (Plegadis falcinellus) - VR/V - SB, SE
Black-headed Ibis (Threskiornis melanocephalus) - VR/F - PY, SB
[edit]Order Falconiformes (Birds of prey)
Family Pandionidae (Osprey)
Osprey (Pandion haliaetus) - C/NBV - Islandwide near water
Family Accipitridae (Eagles, hawks and relatives)
Black Baza (Aviceda leuphotes) - C/WVPM - Islandwide
Jerdon's Baza (Aviceda jerdoni) - R/WVPM - BT, BW, CF, CR, JL, JH, MS, PR, PY, Maju Camp, LH
Oriental Honey Buzzard (Pernis ptilorhyncus) - C/WVPM, R/NBV - WVPM: Islandwide. NBV: Toa Payoh, PY
Bat Hawk (Macheiramphus alcinus) - VR/NBV - CF, PU
Black-winged Kite (Elanus caeruleus) - C/RB - Grasslands
Black Kite (Milvus migrans) - U/WV - BB, CR, MS, PG, PP, SB, SL
Brahminy Kite (Haliastur indus) - C/RB - Islandwide
Japanese Sparrowhawk (Accipiter gularis) - C/WVPM - Islandwide
Chinese Sparrowhawk (Accipiter soloensis) - U/WVPM - BG, CF, JL, NT, PP, PU, SB, SL, WC
Crested Goshawk (Accipiter trivirgatus) - R/RB+NBV - Ang Mo Kio, BG, BT, CF, CR, JL, KD, KR, MF, NT, PG, PU
Besra (Accipiter virgatus) - VR/PM
Grey-faced Buzzard (Butastur indicus) - U/WV - BB, CR, TG
Common Buzzard (Buteo buteo) - U/WV - BW, CR, KR, Payar Lebar, ST
Blyth's Hawk Eagle (Spizaetus alboniger) - VR/NBV - KR, SG
Changeable Hawk Eagle (Spizaetus cirrhatus) - C/RB - Forested areas
Rufous-bellied Eagle (Hieraaetus kienerii) - R/WVPM - BB, BG, CF, LH, SB
Booted Eagle (Hieraaetus pennatus) - R/WV - BW, Bukit Panjang, CF, CR, KR, PG, PP, PY
Greater Spotted Eagle (Aquila clanga) - VR/WV - BG, CR, LH, Murai, PY, SB
Imperial Eagle (Aquila heliaca) - VR/V
Steppe Eagle (Aquila nipalensis) - VR/V - CR
White-bellied Sea Eagle (Haliaeetus leucogaster) - C/RB - Islandwide near water
Grey-headed Fish Eagle (Ichthyophaga ichthyaetus) - U/RB - BB, BG, CF, Changi Village, JL, NT, PY, SB, SL
Himalayan Griffon Vulture (Gyps himalayensis) - VR/V - Ang Mo Kio, BT, CR, JS, Orchard Road, SB, SG
Short-toed Snake Eagle (Circaetus gallicus) - VR/PM - JL, NT, SB, TG
Crested Serpent Eagle (Spilornis cheela) - R/R - BG, BT, CF, JL, SB, SL, Sembawang
Northern Harrier (Circus cyaneus) - VR/WV - CR
Pied Harrier (Circus melanoleucos) - R/WV - CR, TG
Eastern Marsh Harrier (Circus spilonotus) - U/WV - CR, PY, SB, SE, TG
Western Marsh Harrier (Circus aeruginosus) - VR/WV - CR
Family Falconidae (Falcons and relatives)
Black-thighed Falconet (Microhierax fringillarius) - VR/R - BB, JL
Common Kestrel (Falco tinnunculus) - R/WV - CR, KD
Lesser Kestrel (Falco naumanni) - VR/WV - CR
Amur Falcon (Falco amurensis) - VR/V - CR
Oriental Hobby (Falco severus) - VR/WV - PU
Eurasian Hobby (Falco subbuteo) - VR/WV - CR, SB
Peregrine Falcon (Falco peregrinus) - U/WV - BB, CF, CR, City, JL, KB, KD, KR, NT, PP, PU, Punggol Park, SB, SJ, Woodlands
[edit]Order Turniciformes (Buttonquails)
Family Turnicidae (Buttonquails)
Barred Buttonquail (Turnix suscitator) - C/RB - CR, LH, NT, PG, PP, PU, TG, TP
[edit]Order Gruiformes (Cranes and relatives)
Family Heliornithidae (Finfoots)
Masked Finfoot (Heliopais personata) - VR/V - NT, SB (1999), Upper Seletar
Family Gruidae (Cranes)
East African Crowned Crane (Balearica regulorum gibbericeps) - VR/F - SL
Family Rallidae (Rails and relatives)
White-breasted Waterhen (Amaurornis phoenicurus) - VC/RBWV - Islandwide
Common Coot (Fulica atra) - VR/V - PY
Watercock (Gallicrex cinerea) - U/WV - CR, Jurong East, KB, KM, LH, MS, PY, SB, TG
Common Moorhen (Gallinula chloropus) - U/RB - LH, KM, MS, PY, SE, WC
Slaty-breasted Rail (Gallirallus striatus) - C/RB - Tall grass areas
Purple Swamphen (Porphyrio porphyrio) - R/RB - KM, LH, PY, SB, TP
White-browed Crake (Porzana cinerea) - U/RB - LH, KM, PG, SB
Ruddy-breasted Crake (Porzana fusca) - U/RBWV - CR, LH, KM, MS, PG, PP, SL, TG, TP
Baillon's Crake (Porzana pusilla) - R/WVPM - BB, LH, TP, TG
Slaty-legged Crake (Rallina eurizonoides) - VR/WVPM - CF, Admiralty Park
Red-legged Crake (Rallina fasciata) - U/RBWV - BB, BC, BG, BT, CF, PU, SB
[edit]Order Charadriiformes (Shorebirds)
Family Charadriidae (Plovers and lapwings)
Kentish Plover (Charadrius alexandrinus) - U/WVPM - CR, KB, Marina Barrage
Swinhoe's Plover (Charadrius dealbatus) - R/WV - CR
Little Ringed Plover (Charadrius dubius) - C/WVPM - Open areas, rivers, coasts
Common Ringed Plover (Charadrius hiaticula) - VR/PM - CR, SB
Greater Sand Plover (Charadrius leschenaultii) - U/WVPM - CR, SB
Lesser Sand Plover (Charadrius mongolus) - C/WVPM - Rivers, coasts, mudflats
Malaysian Plover (Charadrius peronii) - R/RB - CR, LH, PS
Oriental Plover (Charadrius veredus) - VR/PM - CR
Pacific Golden Plover (Pluvialis fulva) - VC/WVPM - Rivers, coasts, mudflats, open areas
Grey Plover (Pluvialis squatarola) - U/WVPM - CR, PU, SB
Grey-headed Lapwing (Vanellus cinereus) - VR/V - SB
Red-wattled Lapwing (Vanellus indicus) - U/RB - BB, CR, Kranji grassland, NT, PG, PP, PT, PU, SB, Sarimbun, TG
Family Scolopacidae (Sandpipers and relatives)
Eurasian Woodcock (Scolopax rusticola) - VR/WV
Common Snipe (Gallinago gallinago) - C/WV - CR, JL, KB, LH, PG, PY, SB, TG, Venus Drive Carpark
Swinhoe's Snipe (Gallinago megala) - R/WV - CR, PG, NT
Pintail Snipe (Gallinago stenura) - C/WV - CR, Kranji grassland, LH, PG, PU, SB, TG
Asian Dowitcher (Limnodromus semipalmatus) - U/WVPM - CR, LH, PU, SB
Bar-tailed Godwit (Limosa lapponica) - U/WVPM - CR, MM, PU, SB
Black-tailed Godwit (Limosa limosa) - U/WVPM - CR, MM, SB
Eurasian Curlew (Numenius arquata) - U/WVPM - CR, PU, SB
Far Eastern Curlew (Numenius madagascariensis) - R/PM - CR, SB
Little Curlew (Numenius minutus) - VR/V
Whimbrel (Numenius phaeopus) - C/WVPM - Rivers, coasts, mudflats
Great Knot (Calidris tenuirostris) - U/PM - CR, SB
Red Knot (Calidris canutus) - R/WV - SB
Sanderling (Calidris alba) - U/WV - CR
Dunlin (Calidris alpina) - VR/PM - CR
Rufous-necked Stint (Calidris ruficollis) - C/WVPM - CR, MM, PU, SB
Long-toed Stint (Calidris subminuta) - R/WVPM - CR
Temminck's Stint (Calidris temminckii) - VR/PM
Sharp-tailed Sandpiper (Calidris acuminata) - R/V - CR
Curlew Sandpiper (Calidris ferruginea) - C/WVPM - CR, MM, SB
Pectoral Sandpiper (Calidris melanotos) - R/V - CR, Tanah Merah marsh (1999)
Spoon-billed Sandpiper (Eurynorhynchus pygmeus) - VR/WV - CR, LH, Jurong, WC
Broad-billed Sandpiper (Limicola falcinellus) - U/WVPM - CR, MM, SB
Terek Sandpiper (Tringa cinerea) - U/WVPM - CR, MM, SB
Wood Sandpiper (Tringa glareola) - C/WVPM - CR, LH, PG, SB, TG
Common Sandpiper (Tringa hypoleucos) - VC/WVPM - Waterbodies
Green Sandpiper (Tringa ochropus) - VR/WV
Marsh Sandpiper (Tringa stagnatilis) - C/WVPM - Rivers, coasts, mudflats
Common Redshank (Tringa totanus) - C/WVPM - Rivers, coasts, mudflats
Spotted Redshank (Tringa erythropus) - VR/WV - SB
Common Greenshank (Tringa nebularia) - C/WVPM - Rivers, coasts, mudflats
Nordmann's Greenshank (Tringa guttifer) - VR/WV - CR, LH, Jurong, SB, WC
Grey-tailed Tattler (Tringa brevipes) - R/WVPM - CR, SB
Ruddy Turnstone (Arenaria interpres) - U/WV - CR, LH, MM, SB
Ruff (Philomachus pugnax) - VR/WV - CR, SB
Red-necked Phalarope (Phalaropus lobatus) - VR/WV - SS
Family Rostratulidae (Painted snipes)
Greater Painted-snipe (Rostratula benghalensis) - R/RB - PG, KM, LH, TG
Family Jacanidae (Jacanas)
Pheasant-tailed Jacana (Hydrophasianus chirurgus) - VR/WV - KM, JL, SB
Family Burhinidae (Thickknees)
Beach Stone-curlew (Esacus giganteus) - VR/R - Southern Islands
Family Recurvirostridae (Stilts and avocets)
Black-winged Stilt (Himantopus himantopus) - R/WVPM - CR, SB
Family Glareolidae (Pratincoles and Coursers)
Small Pratincole (Glareola lactea) - VR/PM
Oriental Pratincole (Glareola maldivarum) - U/PM - CF, CR, KM, PG, PS, SE, TG
Family Stercorariidae (Skuas and jaegers)
Long-tailed Jaeger (Stercorarius longicaudus) - VR/V - SS
Parasitic Jaeger (Stercorarius parasiticus) - VR/V - SS
Pomarine Jaeger (Stercorarius pomarinus) - VR/V - SS
Family Laridae (Gulls and terns)
Brown-headed Gull (Larus brunnicephalus) - VR/WV - CR
Black-headed Gull (Larus ridibundus) - R/WV - MM, PU
White-winged Tern (Chlidonias hybridus) - C/WVPM - Rivers, coasts, SS
Whiskered Tern (Chlidonias leucopterus) - R/WVPM - JL
Little Tern (Sterna albifrons) - C/RBWV - Rivers, coasts, SS
Aleutian Tern (Sterna aleutica) - VR/V - CR, SS
Bridled Tern (Sterna anaethetus) - U/RB - CR, Pedra Blanca, SS
Lesser Crested Tern (Sterna bengalensis) - C/WV - CR, JS, MM, Pedra Blanca, PU, SS
Great Crested Tern (Sterna bergii) - C/WV - CR, JS, MM, Pedra Blanca, PU, SS
Caspian Tern (Sterna caspia) - R/WV - MM
Roseate Tern (Sterna dougallii) - VR/V
Common Tern (Sterna hirundo) - U/WV - CR, MM, SS
Gull-billed Tern (Sterna nilotica) - R/WVPM - CR, MM, PU
Black-naped Tern (Sterna sumatrana) - U/RB - CR, JS, Pedra Blanca, PU, PT, SS
[edit]Order Columbiformes (Pigeons)
Family Columbidae (Pigeons)
Zebra Dove (Geopelia striata) - C/RB - Urban
Spotted Dove (Streptopelia chinensis) - VC/RB - Urban
Red Collared Dove (Streptopelia tranquebarica) - U/IRB - CR, LH, NT, PR, PU
Emerald Dove (Chalcophaps indica) - U/RB - BB, BT, CF, PU, SB
Jambu Fruit Dove (Ptilinopus jambu) - U/NBV - BB, BG, CF, CR, KR, JL, MF, PP
Thick-billed Green Pigeon (Treron curvirostra) - U/RB - BC, BT, CF, MS, SJ, ST
Cinnamon-headed Green Pigeon (Treron fulvicollis) - VR/NBV - PU, SB
Little Green Pigeon (Treron olax) - VR/R - BT, CF
Pink-necked Green Pigeon (Treron vernans) - C/RB - Wooded areas
Rock Pigeon (Columba livia) - VC/IRB - Urban areas
Pied Imperial Pigeon (Ducula bicolor) - R/NBV+F - BB, JL, Labrador Park, PY, Southern Islands
Green Imperial Pigeon (Ducula aenea) - Ex/RB, VR/V - BB, PU, PT
[edit]Order Psittaciformes (Parrots)
Family Cacatuidae (Cockatoos)
Tanimbar Cockatoo (Cacatua goffiniana)[1] - C/EsRB - BB, BG, Changi Village, MF, SL, ST
Yellow-crested Cockatoo (Cacatua sulphurea) - U/EsRB - BG, Changi Village, Clementi, Dover Road, KR, MF, SJ, ST, TB
Sulphur-crested Cockatoo (Cacatua galerita) - R/Es - MF, ST
Umbrella Cockatoo (Cacatua alba) - R/Es - ST
Salmon-crested Cockatoo (Cacatua moluccensis) - R/Es - Sembawang
Palm Cockatoo (Probosciger aterrimus) - R/Es - CF
Family Psittacidae (Parrots)
African Grey Parrot (Psittacus erithacus) - R/Es - Dempsey Road
Eclectus Parrot (Eclectus roratus) - VR/Es - Pasir Panjang
Blue-rumped Parrot (Psittinus cyanurus) - R/R - CF
Blue-crowned Hanging Parrot (Loriculus galgulus) - U/RB - BB, BG, BT, CF, KR, MF
Vernal Hanging Parrot (Loriculus vernalis) - R/Es - BG
Red-breasted Parakeet (Psittacula alexandri) - C/EsRB - Tall tree areas
Rose-ringed Parakeet (Psittacula krameri) - U/EsRB - BG, KB, PU, PY, SG, SL, Sembawang
Long-tailed Parakeet (Psittacula longicauda) - C/RB - Tall tree areas
Blossom-headed Parakeet (Psittacula roseata) - R/Es - PY
Monk Parakeet (Myiopsitta monachus) - R/Es - CR
Rainbow Lorikeet (Trichoglossus haematodus) - U/EsRB - BG, JL
Red Lory (Eos bornea) - R/Es - BG
Dusky Lory (Pseudeos fuscata) - R/Es - BG
Blue-eared Lory (Eos semilarvata) - R/Es - BG
Peach-faced Lovebird (Agapornis roseicollis) - VR/Es - CF, Pasir Panjang
[edit]Order Cuculiformes (Cuckoos and relatives)
Family Cuculidae (Cuckoos)
Plaintive Cuckoo (Cacomantis merulinus) - U/RB - BB, BT, BW, CF, CR, JL, LH, NT, PG, PU, PY, SB, TP, TG
Rusty-breasted Cuckoo (Cacomantis sepulcralis) - U/RB - BG, BT, BW, CF, KB, LH, NT, PY, PT, PU, SB, ST
Banded Bay Cuckoo (Cacomantis sonnerati) - U/RB - BB, BT, CF, KM, LH, NT, PU, SL
Horsfield's Bronze Cuckoo (Chrysococcyx basalis) - VR/WV - Changi Beach, Kranji, ME, MS, PT, ST, TG
Little Bronze Cuckoo (Chrysococcyx minutillus) - C/RB - Wooded areas
Violet Cuckoo (Chrysococcyx xanthorhynchus) - U/RBWV - BB, BT, CF, PR, PU, PY, SG, SL
Chestnut-winged Cuckoo (Clamator coromandus) - U/WVPM - BG, BW, CF, CR, JL, KB, LH, Murai, PY, SB, SG
Hodgson's Hawk Cuckoo (Cuculus nisicolor) - U/WVPM - BT, BW, CF, CR, JL, Kusu Island, PP, PR, PY
Malaysian Hawk Cuckoo (Cuculus fugax) - R/NBV - SB
Indian Cuckoo (Cuculus micropterus) - C/WVPM - BG, BT, BW, CF, CR, JL, MF, PY, SB
Oriental Cuckoo (Cuculus saturatus) - R/PM - BW, Coney Island, JL
Large Hawk Cuckoo (Cuculus sparverioides) - R/WVPM - BW, CF, CR, KB, PP, PR
Asian Koel (Eudynamys scolopacea) - VC/RB - Islandwide (including offshore islands)
Asian Drongo Cuckoo (Surniculus lugubris) - U/RBWV - BB, BT, BW, CF, JL, NT, PR, PY, SB
Chestnut-bellied Malkoha (Phaenicophaeus sumatranus) - R/RB - BT, CF, PY, TB
Black-bellied Malkoha (Phaenicophaeus diardi) - Ex/RB
Raffles' Malkoha (Phaenicophaeus chlorophaeus) - Ex/RB
Red-billed Malkoha (Phaenicophaeus javanicus) - Ex/RB
Lesser Coucal (Centropus bengalensis) - C/RB - Grasslands
Greater Coucal (Centropus sinensis) - U/RB - Wooded areas
[edit]Order Strigiformes (Owls)
Family Tytonidae (Barn and Bay owls)
Barn Owl (Tyto alba) - U/RB - Under bridges, CR, JL, KD, ST, Toa Payoh, Marina Barrage
Bay Owl (Phodilus badius) - Ex/RB
Family Strigidae (Typical owls)
Barred Eagle Owl (Bubo sumatranus) - Ex/RB, VR/NBV - CF, PU
Short-eared Owl (Asio flammeus) - VR/WVPM - CR
Buffy Fish Owl (Ketupa ketupu) - R/RB - CF, PY, PU, SB, ST
Brown Hawk Owl (Ninox scutulata) - C/RBWV - BT, CF, PU, ST, Venus Drive
Sunda Scops Owl (Otus lempiji) - C/RB - Alexandra Hill, BB, BC, BT, CF, PU, SB, ST
Oriental Scops Owl (Otus sunia) - VR/WVPM - BT, CF, FC, KR, MF, SB, Sembawang
Brown Wood Owl (Strix leptogrammica) - R/RB - CF, PU
Spotted Wood Owl (Strix seloputo) - U/RB - BG, Chinatown, City, Dover Road, JL, PR, PU, PY, SJ, ST, TB, Toa Payoh
[edit]Order Caprimulgiformes (Nightjars and relatives)
Family Podargidae (Frogmouths)
Gould's Frogmouth (Batrachostomus stellatus) - Ex/RB
Family Caprimulgidae (Nightjars)
Savanna Nightjar (Caprimulgus affinis) - C/RB - Grasslands
Grey Nightjar (Caprimulgus indicus) - R/WVPM - BW, CF, CR, JL
Large-tailed Nightjar (Caprimulgus macrurus) - C/RB - Wooded areas
Malaysian Eared Nightjar (Eurostopodus temminckii) - R/R - CF
[edit]Order Apodiformes (Swifts)
Family Apodidae (True swifts)
House Swift (Apus nipalensis) - C/RB - Islandwide including urban areas, forests
Fork-tailed Swift (Apus pacificus) - U/WVPM - BT, CF, PU
Asian Palm Swift (Cypsiurus balasiensis) - U/RB - BT, CF, KR, PU, PY, Sembawang
Glossy Swiftlet (Collocalia esculenta) - R/R - BB, BT, CF
Germain's Swiftlet (Collocalia germani) - C/RB - Islandwide
Black-nest Swiftlet (Collocalia maxima) - C/RB - Islandwide
Himalayan Swiftlet (Collocalia brevirostris) - U/WVPM
Silver-backed Needletail (Hirundapus cochinchinensis) - U/WVPM - BT, CF
Brown-backed Needletail (Hirundapus giganteus) - U/WVPM - BT, CF
White-throated Needletail (Hirundapus caudacutus) - VR/PM - BT
Silver-rumped Spinetail (Rhaphidura leucopygialis) - VR/NBV - CF, PY
Family Hemiprocnidae (Treeswifts)
Whiskered Treeswift (Hemiprocne comata) - VR/NBV - BT, CF
Grey-rumped Treeswift (Hemiprocne longipennis) - C/RB - BB, BC, BG, CF, KR, TB
[edit]Order Coraciiformes (Kingfishers and relatives)
Family Alcedinidae (Kingfishers)
Common Kingfisher (Alcedo atthis) - C/WV - Water edges
Blue-eared Kingfisher (Alcedo meninting) - R/RB - CF, PU, PY, SB, BB
Black-backed Kingfisher (Ceyx erithacus) - Ex/RB, R/WV - BT, CF, SB, Tuas
Banded Kingfisher (Lacedo pulchella) - Ex/RB
Rufous-collared Kingfisher (Actenoides concretus) - Ex/RB
Ruddy Kingfisher (Halcyon coromanda) - R/RB+WV - RB: PT. WV: BG, CF, City, FC, JL, PU, SB, Venus Drive
Black-capped Kingfisher (Halcyon pileata) - U/WV - Water edges
White-throated Kingfisher (Halcyon smyrnensis) - VC/RB - Water edges
Stork-billed Kingfisher (Pelargopsis capensis) - U/RB - Water edges
Collared Kingfisher (Todirhamphus chloris) - VC/RB - Water edges
Family Meropidae (Bee-eaters)
Blue-tailed Bee-eater (Merops philippinus) - C/WV - Islandwide (including offshore islands)
Blue-throated Bee-eater (Merops viridis) - C/MB - Islandwide (including offshore islands)
Family Phoeniculidae (Wood-hoopoes)
Green Wood Hoopoe (Phoeniculus purpureus) - VR/F - Pioneer Circus
Family Coraciidae (Rollers)
Dollarbird (Eurystomus orientalis) - C/RBWV - Wooded areas
Family Bucerotidae (Hornbills)
Oriental Pied Hornbill (Anthracoceros albirostris) - U/RB - BW, CF, Changi Beach, PU, SJ
Rhinoceros Hornbill (Buceros bicornis) - Ex/RB, VR/Es - BT
Great Hornbill (Buceros rhinoceros) - VR/Es - BT, MF, ST
Helmeted Hornbill (Rhinoplax vigil) - Ex/RB
White-crowned Hornbill (Aceros comatus) - VR/Es
Bushy-crested Hornbill (Anorrhinus galeritus) - VR/Es - Ulu Pandan
Black Hornbill (Anthracoceros malayanus) - VR/Es
Narcondam Hornbill (Aceros narcondami) - VR/Es - BW
Southern Ground Hornbill (Bucorvus leadbeateri) - VR/Es
[edit]Order Trogoniformes (Trogons)
Family Trogonidae (Trogons)
Red-naped Trogon (Harpactes kasumba) - Ex/RB
Diard's Trogon (Harpactes diardii) - Ex/RB
[edit]Order Piciformes (Woodpeckers and relatives)
Family Picidae (Woodpeckers)
Sunda Pygmy Woodpecker (Dendrocopus moluccensis) - VC/RB - Parks
Common Goldenback (Dinopium javanense) - C/RB - Wooded areas
Olive-backed Woodpecker (Dinopium rafflesii) - Ex/RB
Buff-rumped Woodpecker (Meiglyptes tristis) - Ex/RB
Buff-necked Woodpecker (Meiglyptes tukki) - Ex/RB
Grey-and-buff Woodpecker (Hemicircus concretus) - Ex/RB
Banded Woodpecker (Picus miniaceus) - C/RB - Forests
Crimson-winged Woodpecker (Picus puniceus) - Ex/RB, VR/NBV - BT
Checker-throated Woodpecker (Picus mentalis) - Ex/RB
Laced Woodpecker (Picus vittatus) - C/RB - Forests
Great Slaty Woodpecker (Mulleripicus pulverulentus) - Ex/RB, VR/NBV
White-bellied Woodpecker (Dryocopus javensis) - VR/R - CF
Rufous Woodpecker (Celeus brachyurus) - U/RB - Wooded areas
Greater Flameback (Chrysocolaptes lucidus) - Ex/RB
Orange-backed Woodpecker (Reinwardtipicus validus) - Ex/RB
Maroon Woodpecker (Blythipicus rubiginosus) - Ex/RB
Family Megalaimidae (Barbets)
Coppersmith Barbet (Megalaima haemacephala) - C/RB - Wooded areas
Lineated Barbet (Megalaima lineata) - U/IRB - BB, BT, JL, KR, PY
Red-crowned Barbet (Megalaima rafflesii) - U/RB - BB, BT, CF, PY
Blue-eared Barbet (Megalaima australis) - Ex/RB
Red-throated Barbet (Megalaima mystacophanos) - Ex/RB
Yellow-crowned Barbet (Megalaima henricii) - Ex/RB
Brown Barbet (Caloramphus fuliginosus) - Ex/RB
Red-and-yellow Barbet (Trachyphonus erythrocephalus) - VR/Es
[edit]Order Passeriformes (Perching birds)
[edit]Family Pittidae (Pittas)
Mangrove Pitta (Pitta megarhyncha) - R/RB - PU, PT, SB, Jurong
Blue-winged Pitta (Pitta moluccensis) - U/WVPM - BB, BG, BT, CF, Jurong Island, Kranji Nature Trail, PY, Sembawang, WC
Hooded Pitta (Pitta sordida) - U/WVPM - BG, BT, BW, CF, JL, WC
Garnet Pitta (Pitta granatina) - Ex/RB
[edit]Family Eurylaimidae (Broadbills)
Black-and-red Broadbill (Cymbirhynchus macrorhynchos) - Ex/RB, VR/NBV - PU
Black-and-yellow Broadbill (Eurylaimus ochromalus) - Ex/RB
Banded Broadbill (Eurylaimus javanicus) - Ex/RB
Green Broadbill (Calyptomena viridis) - Ex/RB
Dusky Broadbill (Corydon sumatranus) - Ex/RB
[edit]Family Acanthizidae (Gerygones and relatives)
Golden-bellied Gerygone (Gerygone sulphurea) - C/RB - Wooded areas
[edit]Family Pachycephalidae (Whistlers and relatives)
Mangrove Whistler (Pachycephala grisola) - U/RB - LH, PH, PS, PU, SB
[edit]Family Dicruridae (Monarchs, paradise flycatchers, drongos and relatives)
Black-naped Monarch (Hypothymis azurea) - VR/R - PU
Japanese Paradise Flycatcher (Terpsiphone atrocaudata) - VR/PM - BW, Bishan, CF, PH
Asian Paradise Flycatcher (Terpsiphone paradisi) - Ex/RB, C/WVPM - Forested areas
Pied Fantail (Rhipidura javanica) - C/RB - Wooded areas
Crow-billed Drongo (Dicrurus annectans) - U/WVPM - BG, BW, CF, MF, NT, PU, SB, SJ
Ashy Drongo (Dicrurus leucophaeus) - R/WV - BB, CF, PS
Black Drongo (Dicrurus macrocercus) - U/WVPM - CR, PG, PY, SB, SL, TG
Greater Racket-tailed Drongo (Dicrurus paradiseus) - C/RB - Forested areas
Bronzed Drongo (Dicrurus aeneus) - Ex/RB
[edit]Family Prionopidae (Helmetshrikes and relatives)
Large Woodshrike (Tephrodornis gularis) - Ex/RB
Maroon-breasted Philentoma (Philentoma velatum) - Ex/RB
Rufous-winged Philentoma (Philentoma pyrhopterum) - Ex/RB
[edit]Family Campephagidae (Cuckoo-shrikes, trillers, minivets and relatives)
Lesser Cuckoo-shrike (Coracina fimbriata) - VR/R - BT
Bar-bellied Cuckoo-shrike (Coracina striata) - Ex/RB
Pied Triller (Lalage nigra) - C/RB - Wooded areas
Ashy Minivet (Pericrocotus divaricatus) - C/WVPM - Wooded areas
Scarlet Minivet (Pericrocotus flammeus) - VR/R - BT
Fiery Minivet (Pericrocotus cinnamomeus) - Ex/RB
[edit]Family Oriolidae (Old World orioles)
Black-naped Oriole (Oriolus chinensis) - VC/RB - Parks, wooded areas
Dark-throated Oriole (Oriolus xanthonotus) - Ex/RB
[edit]Family Corvidae (Crows and relatives)
House Crow (Corvus splendens) - VC/IRB - Urban
Large-billed Crow (Corvus macrorhynchos) - C/RB - Forests
Black Magpie (Platysmurus leucopterus) - Ex/RB
Green Magpie (Cissa chinensis) - VR/Es - BB
Red-billed Blue Magpie (Urocissa erythrorhyncha) - VR/Es - MF, SB, KR
[edit]Family Irenidae (Fairy bluebirds)
Asian Fairy Bluebird (Irena puella) - C/RB - BT, CF
[edit]Family Chloropseidae (Leafbirds)
Blue-winged Leafbird (Chloropsis cochinchinensis) - C/RB - BT, CF
Greater Green Leafbird (Chloropsis sonnerati) - U/RB - BT, CF
Lesser Green Leafbird (Chloropsis cyanopogon) - U/RB - BT, CF
[edit]Family Laniidae (Shrikes)
Brown Shrike (Lanius cristatus) - C/WVPM - Grasslands, secondary growth
Long-tailed Shrike (Lanius schach) - C/RB - Grasslands
Tiger Shrike (Lanius tigrinus) - C/WVPM - Secondary forests
[edit]Family Aegithinidae (Ioras)
Common Iora (Aegithina tiphia) - C/RB - Wooded areas
Green Iora (Aegithina viridissima) - Ex/RB
[edit]Family Turdidae (Thrushes)
Eyebrowed Thrush (Turdus obscurus) - R/WVPM - BT, BW, CF, PU, TB
Orange-headed Thrush (Zoothera citrina) - R/WV - BG, BT, BW, CF, WC
Siberian Thrush (Zoothera sibirica) - VR/PM - BT, CF, KR, JL
White-throated Rock Thrush (Monticola gularis) - VR/WVPM - BT
Blue Rock Thrush (Monticola solitarius) - VR/PM - BT, Tanjong Pagar
[edit]Family Muscicapidae (Old World flycatchers)
Brown-chested Jungle-flycatcher (Rhinomyias brunneatus) - R/WVPM - BB, BW, CF, SB
Asian Brown Flycatcher (Muscicapa dauurica) - C/WVPM - Wooded areas
Dark-sided Flycatcher (Muscicapa sibirica) - U/WVPM - BB, BG, BW, CF, NT, BG
Ferruginous Flycatcher (Muscicapa ferruginea) - R/WVPM - BG, CF, JL
Grey-streaked Flycatcher (Muscicapa griseisticta) - VR/PM
Brown-streaked Flycatcher (Muscicapa williamsoni) - R/WVPM - BB, BW, CF, JL, MF
Mugimaki Flycatcher (Ficedula mugimaki) - U/PM - BB, BT, BW, CF, KR, MF, JL
Chinese Flycatcher (Ficedula elisae) - R/WVPM - Bishan Park, CF, KB, KR, MS
Narcissus Flycatcher (Ficedula narcissina) - VR/V - Sengkang
Yellow-rumped Flycatcher (Ficedula zanthopygia) - C/PM - BW
Blue-and-white Flycatcher (Cyanoptila cyanomelana) - R/PM - BB, BG, BT, BW, CF, JL, KR
Chinese Blue Flycatcher (Cyornis glaucicomans) - VR/PM - SB
Mangrove Blue Flycatcher (Cyornis rufigastra) - VR/RB - PT, PU, SB
Siberian Blue Robin (Luscinia cyane) - U/WVPM - BT, CF, PU, SB
Oriental Magpie Robin (Copsychus saularis) - U/RB - Secondary growths
White-rumped Shama (Copsychus malabaricus) - R/RB - BB, BT, CF, MF, PU, SB
Siberian Stonechat (Saxicola maura) - R/WVPM - CR, Kranji grassland, MS, PG, PY, TG
[edit]Family Sturnidae (Starlings, mynas, oxpeckers)
Asian Glossy Starling (Aplonis panayensis) - VC/RB - Islandwide
Purple-backed Starling (Sturnus sturninus) - VC/WVPM - Wooded areas
Chestnut-cheeked Starling (Sturnus philippensis) - VR/PM
White-shouldered Starling (Sturnus sinensis) - U/WVPM - CR, KR, LH, PG
Black-winged Starling (Sturnus melanopterus) - VR/FRB - Jurong, SJ (1983)
Rosy Starling (Sturnus roseus) - VR/WV - CR, Jurong Island, TG (1990s)
Black-collared Starling (Sturnus nigricollis) - VR/Es - CR, KD, SB
Brahminy Starling (Sturnus pagodarum) - VR/Es - MS
Asian Pied Starling (Sturnus contra) - VR/Es - CR, NT
Red-winged Starling (Onychognathus morio) - R/Es - JL
Crested Myna (Acridotheres cristatellus) - VR/IRB
Javan Myna (Acridotheres javanicus) - VC/IRB - Islandwide (including offshore islands)
Common Myna (Acridotheres tristis) - C/RB - Islandwide (including offshore islands)
Common Hill Myna (Gracula religiosa) - C/RB - BB, BG, BT, CF, MF, PU, PY, SL
[edit]Family Hirundinidae (Swallows)
Red-rumped Swallow (Hirundo daurica) - U/WVPM - BT, CF, CR, PG, PY, SL, TG
Barn Swallow (Hirundo rustica) - VC/WVPM - Islandwide (including offshore islands)
Pacific Swallow (Hirundo tahitica) - C/RB - Islandwide (including offshore islands)
Sand Martin (Riparia riparia) - U/WVPM - BT, CF, CR, KM, NT, SL
Asian House Martin (Delichon dasypus) - R/PM - BT, CR
[edit]Family Pycnonotidae (Bulbuls)
Black-headed Bulbul (Pycnonotus atriceps) - R/RB - CF, PU
Sooty-headed Bulbul (Pycnonotus aurigaster) - U/IRB - CR, LH, PG, PR, SE, TP
Red-eyed Bulbul (Pycnonotus brunneus) - R/RB - BB, BT, CF
Yellow-vented Bulbul (Pycnonotus goiavier) - VC/RB - Parks
Red-whiskered Bulbul (Pycnonotus jocosus) - U/IRB - CR, JL, LH, PU, PY
Black-crested Bulbul (Pycnonotus melanicterus) - R/IR - BT
Olive-winged Bulbul (Pycnonotus plumosus) - C/RB - BG, BT, CF, SB, PU
Cream-vented Bulbul (Pycnonotus simplex) - U/RB - BT, CF
Straw-headed Bulbul (Pycnonotus zeylanicus) - U/RB - Secondary forests
Orange-spotted Bulbul (Pycnonotus bimaculatus) - VR/Es - BG
Spectacled Bulbul (Pycnonotus erythropthalmos) - VR/NBV - BT (2006)
Grey-bellied Bulbul (Pycnonotus cyaniventris) - Ex/RB
Puff-backed Bulbul (Pycnonotus eutilotus) - Ex/RB
Black-and-white Bulbul (Pycnonotus melanoleucus) - Ex/RB
Yellow-bellied Bulbul (Alophoixus phaeocephalus) - Ex/RB
Ashy Bulbul (Hemixos flavala) - U/NBV - BB, BT, CF, KR, MS, PU, SB
Buff-vented Bulbul (Iole olivacea) - VR/RB - BT
Streaked Bulbul (Ixos malaccensis) - R/NBV - BB, BT, Changi Village, SB
[edit]Family Sylviidae (Old World warblers)
Pallas's Grasshopper Warbler (Locustella certhiola) - U/WVPM - Grasslands
Lanceolated Warbler (Locustella lanceolata) - R/WVPM - KM, PG
Black-browed Reed-warbler (Acrocephalus bistrigiceps) - U/WV - CR, KM, MS, NT, PG, SB, TG
Oriental Reed-warbler (Acrocephalus orientalis) - C/WV - Marshes, Wooded areas near water
Arctic Warbler (Phylloscopus borealis) - C/WVPM - Wooded areas
Eastern Crowned Warbler (Phylloscopus coronatus) - U/WV - BT, CF, SB
Dusky Warbler (Phylloscopus fuscatus) - VR/PM - CF
Yellow-browed Warbler (Phylloscopus inornatus) - R/WVPM - BB, BT, BW, CF, MF
Pale-legged Leaf Warbler (Phylloscopus tenellipes) - VR/WV - CF
Dark-necked Tailorbird (Orthotomus atrogularis) - C/RB - Forests
Rufous-tailed Tailorbird (Orthotomus sericeus) - U/RB - Forests
Common Tailorbird (Orthotomus sutorius) - C/RB - Scrubby areas
Ashy Tailorbird (Orthotomus ruficeps) - C/RB - Mangroves
Zitting Cisticola (Cisticola juncidis) - C/RB - Grasslands
Yellow-bellied Prinia (Prinia flaviventris) - C/RB - Grasslands
[edit]Family Timaliidae (Old World babblers)
Hwamei (Garrulax canorus) - R/IRB - KR, MF, ST
Black-throated Laughingthrush (Garrulax chinensis) - R/Es - MF
White-crested Laughingthrush (Garrulax leucolophus) - C/IRB - Wooded areas
Greater Necklaced Laughingthrush (Garrulax pectoralis) - VR/Es - MF
Black-capped Babbler (Pellorneum capistratum) - Ex/RB
White-chested Babbler (Trichastoma rostratum) - R/RB - CF, KM, SB
Abbott's Babbler (Malacocincla abbotti) - C/RB - BT, CF, PU, SB, ST
Short-tailed Babbler (Malacocincla malaccensis) - C/RB - CF
Moustached Babbler (Malacopteron magnirostre) - VR/RB - CF
Grey-breasted Babbler (Malacopteron albogulare) - Ex/RB
Chestnut-winged Babbler (Stachyris erythroptera) - U/RB - CF
Chestnut-rumped Babbler (Stachyris maculata) - Ex/RB
Black-throated Babbler (Stachyris nigricollis) - Ex/RB
Striped Tit-babbler (Macronous gularis) - C/RB - Forests
Fluffy-backed Tit-babbler (Macronous ptilosus) - Ex/RB
Large Wren-babbler (Napothera macrodactyla) - Ex/RB
Striped Wren-babbler (Kenopia striata) - Ex/RB
Red-billed Leiothrix (Leiothrix lutea) - VR/Es - Hougang
[edit]Family Zosteropidae (White-eyes)
Oriental White-eye (Zosterops palpebrosus) - U/rIRB - Wooded areas
Japanese White-eye (Zosterops japonicus) - R/I
Chestnut-flanked White-eye (Zosterops erythropleurus) - R/I
Mountain White-eye (Zosterops montanus) - R/I
Everett's White-eye (Zosterops everetti) - R/I
Mangrove White-eye (Zosterops chloris) - R/I
[edit]Family Dicaeidae (Flowerpeckers)
Thick-billed Flowerpecker (Dicaeum agile) - VR/NBV - BB, BT, CF
Yellow-vented Flowerpecker (Dicaeum chrysorrheum) - VR/R - BB, BT, CF
Scarlet-backed Flowerpecker (Dicaeum cruentatum) - C/RB - Parks
Orange-bellied Flowerpecker (Dicaeum trigonostigma) - C/RB - Forests
Plain Flowerpecker (Dicaeum concolor) - Ex/RB
Yellow-breasted Flowerpecker (Prionochilus maculatus) - Ex/RB
[edit]Family Nectariniidae (Sunbirds and spiderhunters)
Crimson Sunbird (Aethopyga siparaja) - C/RB - Parks, Forests
Brown-throated Sunbird (Anthreptes malacensis) - C/RB - Parks
Plain Sunbird (Anthreptes simplex) - R/R - CF
Olive-backed Sunbird (Cinnyris jugularis) - C/RB - Parks
Purple-naped Sunbird (Hypogramma hypogrammicum) - Ex/RB
Copper-throated Sunbird (Leptocoma calcostetha) - U/RB - BB, SB, PU
Purple-throated Sunbird (Leptocoma sperata) - C/RB - BB, BT, CF, PU
Yellow-eared Spiderhunter (Arachnothera chrysogenys) - R/R - BT, CF, PU
Thick-billed Spiderhunter (Arachnothera crassirostris) - R/R - BT, CF
Little Spiderhunter (Arachnothera longirostra) - U/RB - BT, CF, PU
Grey-breasted Spiderhunter (Arachnothera affinis) - Ex/RB
Spectacled Spiderhunter (Arachnothera chrysogenys) - Ex/RB
[edit]Family Motacillidae (Wagtails, pipits and relatives)
Forest Wagtail (Dendronanthus indicus) - U/WVPM - Forest edges, BW, CF, Venus Drive
White Wagtail (Motacilla alba) - R/WV - BC, BG, CR, PG
Grey Wagtail (Motacilla cinerea) - U/WVPM - Admiralty Park, BB, BT, CF, CR, PG, PU
Citrine Wagtail (Motacilla citreola) - VR/WV
Yellow Wagtail (Motacilla flava) - C/WV - CR, LH, KM, NT, PG
Red-throated Pipit (Anthus cervinus) - R/WV - CR
Olive-backed Pipit (Anthus hodgsoni) - VR/PM - BW
Paddyfield Pipit (Anthus rufulus) - C/RB - Urban
[edit]Family Ploceidae (Weavers and relatives)
Streaked Weaver (Ploceus manyar) - VR/RB - KB, LH, SB, SE
Baya Weaver (Ploceus philippinus) - C/RB - Grasslands
Golden Bishop (Euplectes afer) - R/Es - CR
Red Bishop (Euplectes orix) - R/Es - ME
Red-headed Quelea (Quelea erythrops) - VR/Es
[edit]Family Estrildidae (Estrildid finches)
Red Avadavat (Estrilda amandava) - R/IRB - CR, MS, NT, PG, TG
White-capped Munia (Lonchura ferruginosa) - R/Es - PG
Javan Munia (Lonchura leucogastroides) - U/IRB - Grasslands
White-headed Munia (Lonchura maja) - C/RB - Grasslands
Indian Silverbill (Lonchura malabarica) - R/Es - CR
Black-headed Munia (Lonchura malacca) - C/RB - Grasslands
Scaly-breasted Munia (Lonchura punctulata) - C/RB - Grasslands
White-rumped Munia (Lonchura striata) - R/RB - BT, CF, NT, PT, PU, SB, ST, TG
Java Sparrow (Padda oryzivora) - VR/Es - LH, PU
[edit]Family Viduidae (Indigobirds and Whydahs)
Pin-tailed Whydah (Vidua macroura) - R/Es - CR
[edit]Family Fringillidae (True Finches)
Yellow-fronted Canary (Serinus mozambicus) - R/Es - CR, LH, ME, MS, PG, PP, SE
White-rumped Seedeater (Serinus leucopygius) - VR/Es - PG
[edit]Family Emberizidae (Buntings and relatives)
Yellow-breasted Bunting (Emberiza aureola) - VR/WV
[edit]Family Passeridae (Old World sparrows)
House Sparrow (Passer domesticus) - R/IRB - Pasir Panjang, Jurong Island
Eurasian Tree Sparrow (Passer montanus) - VC/RB - Urban area
[edit]See also

List of Singapore mammals
List of Singapore reptiles
List of Singapore amphibians
[edit]References

^ Roselaar, C.S.; J.P. Michels. ". Systematic notes on Asian birds. 48. Nomenclatural chaos untangled, resulting in the naming of the formally undescribed Cacatua species from the Tanimbar Islands, Indonesia (Psittaciformes: Cacatuidae)". Zool. Verh. Leiden 350: 183–196.
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Categories: Birds of Singapore | Singapore-related lists | Lists of birds by country | Fauna of Singapore
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A Report from birdtours.co.uk
SINGAPORE.     15-16 OCTOBER, 1998, Tim Earl
(This report appears with the permission of Bren McCartney of the Berkshire Birds Web-Pages - see links)

I had a two-day stop-over in Singapore on a birding trip to Australia. Because of the lack of time and my inexperience in Asia I employed a local guide Subaraj Rajathurai (Raj - e-mail: serin@swiftech.com.sg (Subaraj Rajathurai) - for one half-day and a full day's birding. His fee includes meals in local restaurants, refreshments all transport and a superb check-list for use as reference. Raj proved to be an excellent birding companion with humour and considerable knowledge to add to his extraordinary field skills. In the time available I could not have found half the sites or species without him.

15.10.98

A start at 6am when Raj collected me from my hotel and we went, with driver, to Changi Village for the short crossing to Pulau Ubin. We were joined by Oriental Bird Club secretary Brian Sykes at the ferry. There we explored the village area on foot, picking up flocks of long-tailed parakeets flying over, Red jungle-fowl, Common flame-back and Laced woodpeckers and a migrating Japanese Sparrowhawk. We then took to cycles, stopping to investigate bird calls, likely habitat and anything seen as we passed.

Raj's hearing is well tuned to the local calls and helped us get Straw-headed bulbul and Abbot's babbler in the dense secondary vegetation. On reaching the mangrove swamps we used tapes to try and pin down Mangrove whistler (with success) and Mangrove pitta, Pitta megarhyncha, which we did not get. This super habitat yielded a small party of birds which included Ashy and Dark-necked tailorbird, Asian paradise flycatcher, Magpie robin, Pied fantail and Brown-throated sunbird. With a little help from Brian I pulled out Common iora. A call alerted Raj to Stork-billed kingfisher and a stunning Scarlet-backed flowerpecker added to the fun. A tip-off ended the morning with a migrant and most obliging Ruddy kingfisher.

Birds seen in Pulau Ubin forest habitat:

Crested (Oriental) honey buzzard Pernis ptilorhynchus
White-bellied sea-eagle Haliaeetus leucogaster
Japanese sparrowhawk Accipiter gularis L (lifer)
Red jungle-fowl Gallus gallus L
Great crested (Swift) tern Sterna bergii
Lesser crested tern Sterna bengalensis
Spotted dove Streptopelia chinensis
Pink-necked pigeon Treron vernans L
Long-tailed parakeet Psittacula longicauda L
Asian (Common) koel Eudynamys scolopacea L
Ruddy kingfisher Halcyon coromanda L
White-collared kingfisher Halcyon (Todihramphus) chloris
Eastern broad-billed roller (Dollarbird) Eurystomus orientalis
Laced woodpecker Picus vittalus L
Common flameback (goldenback) Dinopium javanense L
Indian house crow Corvus splendens
Large-billed crow Corvus macrohynchos
Black-naped oriole Oriolus chinensis
Asian (Philippine) glossy starling Aplonis panayensis L
Common myna Acridotheries tristis
Javan myna Acridotheres javanicus L
Barn swallow Hirundo rustica
Pacific swallow Hirundo tahitica L
Straw-headed bulbul Pycnonotus zeylanicus L
Olive-winged bulbul Pycnonotus plumosus L
Abbott's babbler Malacocincla abbotti L
Eurasian tree sparrow Passer montanus
Scarlet-backed flowerpecker Dicaeum cruentatum L
Crimson sunbird Aethopyga siparaja L
Birds seen in Pulau Ubin mangrove habitat:

Brahminy kite Haliastur indus L
Common sandpiper Tringa hypoleucos
Greater coucal Centropus sinensis L
Himalayan swiftlet Callocalia brevirostris L
Common kingfisher Alcedo atthis
Stork-billed kingfisher Pelargopsis capensis L
Smyrna (White-throated) kingfisher Halcyon smyrnensis
Blue-tailed bee-eater Merops philippinus
Mangrove whistler Pachycephala grisola L
Pied fantail Rhipidura javanica L
Asian paradise-flycatcher Terpsiphone paradisi L
Indian house crow Corvus splendens
Common iora Aegithina tiphia L
Oriental magpie-robin Copsychus saularis L
Dark-necked tailorbird Orthotomus atrogularis L
Ashy tailorbird Orthotomus sepium L
Arctic warbler Phylloscopus borealis
Plain- (Brown-) throated sunbird Anthreptes malacensis L
Copper-throated sunbird Nectarinia calcostetha L
16.10.98

Another 6am start had us in MacRitchie Reservoir forest before day-break to get excellent views of Collared scops owl and Brown hawk-owl. It started to rain as we set off across the golf course and by the time it finished four hours later I was a little damp. However, we had picked up Greater racket-tailed drongo, Asian fairy-bluebird, Hill and Javan myna and stunning views of sparring White-bellied sea eagles and Brahminy kites. The forest edge yielded Forest wagtail, Striped tit-babbler and one of my all-time top five birds, Siberian blue robin.

MacRitchie Reservoir (forest and golf course)

Brahminy kite Haliastur indus
White-bellied sea-eagle Haliaeetus leucogaster
Long-tailed parakeet Psittacula longicauda
Collared scops owl Otus bakkamoena L
Brown hawk-owl Ninox scutulata L
Grey-rumped treeswift Hemiprocne longipennis L
Edible-nest/Black swiftlet Collocalia fuciphaga/maxima L
Little swift Apus affinis
Common kingfisher Alcedo atthis
Smyrna (White-throated) kingfisher Halcyon smyrnensis
Common flameback (goldenback) Dinopium javanense
Greater racket-tailed drongo Dicrurus paradiseus L
Large-billed crow Corvus macrohynchos
Asian fairy-bluebird Irena puella L
Javan myna Acridotheres javanicus
Hill myna Gracula religiosa L
Asian brown flycatcher Musicapa latirostris
Yellow-rumped flycatcher Ficedula zanthopygia
Siberian blue robin Luscinia cyane
Barn swallow Hirundo rustica
Pacific swallow Hirundo tahitica
Olive-winged bulbul Pycnonotus plumosus
Arctic warbler Phylloscopus borealis
Striped tit-babbler Macronus gularis L
Forest wagtail Dendronanthus indicus L
Plain- (Brown-) throated sunbird Anthreptes malacensis L
Drying off, we went to Sungei Buloh Nature Reserve, a magnificent piece of Singapore tourist attraction. Over brunch we were thrilled by a flock of 45 Oriental pratincoles migrating through with Himalayan swiftlets. From the hide, where we were again joined by Brian Sykes, Terek sandpipers were the top of my wader list (twitched while wringing out saturated socks) while White-fronted waterhens, a Yellow bittern and Slaty-breasted rail added nicely to the growing day-list. Broad-billed sandpipers, Limicola falcinellus, which had been seen in the morning would have been a close second but they had left for mud-flats as the tide dropped before we got there.

Once the rain stopped things started moving with Yellow-breasted prinia, Zebra and Emerald doves, Common and Rufous-tailed tailorbirds starring.

Birds seen at Sungei Buloh:

Little egret Egretta garzetta
Great white egret Egretta alba
Purple heron Ardea purpurea
Cattle egret Ardeola ibis
Striated (Green-backed) heron Butorides striatus
Yellow bittern Ixobrychus sinensis L
Slaty-breasted rail Galliallus striatus L
Bar-tailed godwit Limosa lapponica
Whimbrel Numenius phaeopus
Common redshank Tringa totanus
Marsh sandpiper Tringa stagnatilis
Common greenshank Tringa nebularia
Wood sandpiper Tringa glareola
Terek sandpiper Tringa cinereus
Common sandpiper Tringa hypoleucos
Ruddy turnstone Arenaria interpres
Curlew sandpiper Calidris ferruginea
Oriental pratincole Glareola maldivarum L
Pacific (Asian) golden plover Pluvialis fulva
Little ringed plover Charadrius dubius
Lesser sandplover Charadrius mongolus
Greater sandplover Charadrius leschenaulti
Emerald dove (Green-winged pigeon) Chalcophaps indica L
Zebra (Peaceful) dove Geopelia striata L
Asian (Common) koel Eudynamys scolopacea
Himalayan swiftlet Callocalia brevirostris L
Edible-nest/Black swiftlet Collocalia fuciphaga/maxima L
Pacific (Fork-tailed) swift Apus pacificus
Stork-billed kingfisher Pelargopsis capensis
Black-capped kingfisher Halcyon pileata L
White-collared kingfisher Halcyon (Todihramphus) chloris
Black-naped oriole Oriolus chinensis
Brown shrike Lanius cristatus
Javan myna Acridotheres javanicus
Asian brown flycatcher Musicapa latirostris
Yellow-vented bulbul Pycnonotus goiavier L
Yellow-bellied prinia Prinia flaviventris L
Common tailorbird Orthotomus sutorius L
Rufous-tailed tailorbird Orthotomus sericeus L
Olive-backed sunbird Nectarinia jugularis L
Early afternoon saw us at the Seragoon Estuary searching for Chinese egret (without success) and debating the local Whimbrels' apparent similarity with other Curlew species. lesser coucal and long-tailed shrike were in grasslands close to a river thick with White-winged terns hawking a fly hatch with Pacific and Barn swallows.

Birds seen on the Serangoon Estuary:

Little grebe Tachybaptus ruficollis
Grey heron Ardea cinerea
Cinnamon bittern Ixobrychus cinnamomeus L
Osprey Pandion haliaetus
White-browed crake Porzana cinerea L
Common redshank Tringa totanus
White-winged black tern Chlidonias leucoptera
Little tern Sterna albifrons
Rock dove (feral pigeon) Columba livia
Red collared (turtle) dove Streptopelia tranquebarica L
Lesser coucal Centropus bengalensis L
Long-tailed shrike Lanius schach L
Yellow wagtail Motacilla flava flavissima
A visit to a sewage settling pond (which by now will have been filled in by the development work going on) produced Cinnamon bittern and White-browed crake (found by Brian and giving stonking views). Red collared doves were feeding with the local pigeons, watched by Scaly-breasted munias in nearby tall grass.

A few hundred yards away the grass habitat of long disused settling ponds were most productive with Black-headed and White-headed munias, Baya and Streaked weavers, Oriental pipit, Barred buttonquail, Pallas's grasshopper and Oriental reed warblers.

Birds seen at the old sewage ponds, Serangoon Estuary:

Barred buttonquail Turnix suscitator L
Little swift Apus affinis
Blue-tailed bee-eater Merops philippinus
Barn swallow Hirundo rustica
Pacific swallow Hirundo tahitica
Fan-tailed warbler (Zitting cisticola) Cisticola juncidis
Pallas's grasshopper warbler Locustella certhiola
Oriental reed warbler Acrocephalus orientalis L
Scaly-breasted munia Lonchura punctulata L
Black-headed (Chestnut) munia Lonchura malacca L
White-headed munia Lonchura maja L
Oriental (Paddyfield) pipit Anthus rufulus L
Streaked weaver Ploceus manjar L
Baya weaver Ploceus philippinus L
As the day drew to a close we stopped at Loyang Camp for brilliant performances by the following:

Red-breasted parakeet Psittacula alexandri L
Tanimbar (Goffin's) cockatoo * Cacatua goffini L
Coppersmith barbet Megalaima haemacephala L
Asian (Philippine) glossy starling Aplonis panayensis
Our last stop was in forest near the Botanical Gardens where we had a second Ruddy kingfisher, Brown-chested jungle-flycatcher and a roosting Changeable hawk-eagle.

Birds seen in forest close to the Botanical Gardens:

Changeable hawk-eagle Spizaetus cirrhatus L
Ruddy kingfisher Halcyon coromanda
Blue-tailed bee-eater Merops philippinus
Hill myna Gracula religiosa
Brown-chested jungle-flycatcher Rhinomyias brunneata L
Three hours later I was on an excellent British Airways flight back to London.

In total I had seen 122 species of which 70 were lifers.

SINGAPORE LIST:

Little grebe Tachybaptus ruficollis
Little egret Egretta garzetta
Great white egret Egretta alba
Grey heron Ardea cinerea
Purple heron Ardea purpurea
Cattle egret Ardeola ibis
Striated (Green-backed) heron Butorides striatus
Yellow bittern Ixobrychus sinensis
Cinnamon bittern Ixobrychus cinnamomeus
Osprey Pandion haliaetus
Crested (Oriental) honey buzzard Pernis ptilorhynchus
Brahminy kite Haliastur indus
White-bellied sea-eagle Haliaeetus leucogaster
Japanese sparrowhawk Accipiter gularis
Changeable hawk-eagle Spizaetus cirrhatus
Red jungle-fowl Gallus gallus
Barred buttonquail Turnix suscitator
Slaty-breasted rail Galliallus striatus
White-browed crake Porzana cinerea
Bar-tailed godwit Limosa lapponica
Whimbrel Numenius phaeopus
Common redshank Tringa totanus
Marsh sandpiper Tringa stagnatilis
Common greenshank Tringa nebularia
Wood sandpiper Tringa glareola
Terek sandpiper Tringa cinereus
Common sandpiper Tringa hypoleucos
Ruddy turnstone Arenaria interpres
Curlew sandpiper Calidris ferruginea
Oriental pratincole Glareola maldivarum
Pacific (Asian) golden plover Pluvialis fulva
Little ringed plover Charadrius dubius
Lesser sandplover Charadrius mongolus
Greater sandplover Charadrius leschenaulti
White-winged black tern Chlidonias leucoptera
Great crested (Swift) tern Sterna bergii
Lesser crested tern Sterna bengalensis
Little tern Sterna albifrons
Rock dove (feral pigeon) Columba livia
Spotted dove Streptopelia chinensis
Red collared (turtle) dove Streptopelia tranquebarica
Emerald dove (Green-winged pigeon) Chalcophaps indica
Pink-necked pigeon Treron vernans
Zebra (Peaceful) dove Geopelia striata
Red-breasted parakeet Psittacula alexandri
Long-tailed parakeet Psittacula longicauda
Tanimbar (Goffin's) cockatoo * Cacatua goffini
Asian (Common) koel Eudynamys scolopacea
Greater coucal Centropus sinensis
Lesser coucal Centropus bengalensis
Collared scops owl Otus bakkamoena
Brown hawk-owl Ninox scutulata
Grey-rumped treeswift Hemiprocne longipennis
Himalayan swiftlet Callocalia brevirostris
Edible-nest/Black swiftlet Collocalia fuciphaga/maxima
Pacific (Fork-tailed) swift Apus pacificus
Little swift Apus affinis
Common kingfisher Alcedo atthis
Stork-billed kingfisher Pelargopsis capensis
Ruddy kingfisher Halcyon coromanda
Smyrna (White-throated) kingfisher Halcyon smyrnensis
Black-capped kingfisher Halcyon pileata
White-collared kingfisher Halcyon (Todihramphus) chloris
Blue-tailed bee-eater Merops philippinus
Eastern broad-billed roller (Dollarbird) Eurystomus orientalis
Coppersmith barbet Megalaima haemacephala
Laced woodpecker Picus vittalus
Common flameback (goldenback) Dinopium javanense
Mangrove whistler Pachycephala grisola
Pied fantail Rhipidura javanica
Asian paradise-flycatcher Terpsiphone paradisi
Greater racket-tailed drongo Dicrurus paradiseus
Indian house crow Corvus splendens
Large-billed crow Corvus macrohynchos
Common iora Aegithina tiphia
Black-naped oriole Oriolus chinensis
Pied triller Lalage nigra
Asian fairy-bluebird Irena puella
Brown shrike Lanius cristatus
Long-tailed shrike Lanius schach
Asian (Philippine) glossy starling Aplonis panayensis
Common myna Acridotheries tristis
Javan myna Acridotheres javanicus
Hill myna Gracula religiosa
Brown-chested jungle-flycatcher Rhinomyias brunneata
Asian brown flycatcher Musicapa latirostris
Yellow-rumped flycatcher Ficedula zanthopygia
Siberian blue robin Luscinia cyane
Oriental magpie-robin Copsychus saularis
Barn swallow Hirundo rustica
Pacific swallow Hirundo tahitica
Straw-headed bulbul Pycnonotus zeylanicus
Yellow-vented bulbul Pycnonotus goiavier
Olive-winged bulbul Pycnonotus plumosus
Fan-tailed warbler (Zitting cisticola) Cisticola juncidis
Yellow-bellied prinia Prinia flaviventris
Pallas's grasshopper warbler Locustella certhiola
Oriental reed warbler Acrocephalus orientalis
Common tailorbird Orthotomus sutorius
Dark-necked tailorbird Orthotomus atrogularis
Rufous-tailed tailorbird Orthotomus sericeus
Ashy tailorbird Orthotomus sepium
Arctic warbler Phylloscopus borealis
Abbott's babbler Malacocincla abbotti
Striped tit-babbler Macronus gularis
Eurasian tree sparrow Passer montanus
Scaly-breasted munia Lonchura punctulata
Black-headed (Chestnut) munia Lonchura malacca
White-headed munia Lonchura maja
Forest wagtail Dendronanthus indicus
Yellow wagtail Motacilla flava flavissima
Oriental (Paddyfield) pipit Anthus rufulus
Streaked weaver Ploceus manjar
Baya weaver Ploceus philippinus
Scarlet-backed flowerpecker Dicaeum cruentatum
Plain- (Brown-) throated sunbird Anthreptes malacensis
Purple-throated sunbird Nectarinia sperata
Copper-throated sunbird Nectarinia calcostetha
Olive-backed sunbird Nectarinia jugularis
Crimson sunbird Aethopyga siparaja
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BIRDS OF SINGAPORE

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Order
Columbiformes
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Columbidae


Spotted Dove
© Slim Sreedharan


Spotted Dove sunning itself
© Yeow Chin Wee


Spotted Dove courtship feeding
© Yeow Chin Wee



Bird Ecology Study Group

Bird Topography
following Delacour (1947)
To report an error, to provide new information, or make any comment, please e-mail me at: slim.sreedharan@gmail.com

Species: Spotted Dove Streptopelia chinensis
Other common names: Tigrine Dove, Spotted-necked Dove, Malay Spotted Dove.

Taxonomy: Streptopelia chinensis (Scopoli) 1786, China.

Sub-species & Distribution: Three races are currently recognised. Found in Pakistan, Nepal and India, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, China, Taiwan, Myanmar, and SE Asia to the Greater and Lesser Sundas, and the Philippines, introduced to California, Hawaii and Australia. Only one race is found in this region:

tigrina (Temminck) 1810, Java. Found in India, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Thailand, West Malaysia, Sumatra, Java, Borneo, Sulawesi, Bali and the Philippines.
Size: 10 to 11" (26 to 28 cm). Sexes alike.

Description: Head and face vinous-pink, greyer around eyes, crown, on lores, forehead and base of lower bill. A very broad collar across the neck and nape extends to both sides of throat, its black feathers broadly tipped white to produce a chequer-board pattern. Upper back, scapulars, lesser and median coverts greyish-brown with dark shaft streaks. Primaries and primary coverts brownish-black, secondaries browner, tertials and inner greater coverts ashy-brown with black shaft streaks. Lesser, median and outer greater coverts edged white on outer webs forming a white wing patch. Lower back and rump ashy-brown with black markings, uppertail coverts darker. The central pair of tail feathers ashy-brown, the next pair blackish-brown with indistinct paler tips, the rest with broad white tips that are most noticeable when the bird takes flight or when it lands. Chin white tinged pinkish. Throat, breast and flanks vinous-pink, grading to creamy buff on lower belly, and paler on the vent and undertail coverts. Underwing coverts dark sooty grey, bluish-grey on leading edge of the wing.

Immature birds: Duller and browner above, the spots around neck much less distinct or almost absent, the wing coverts edged buffy-rufous.

Soft parts: Iris pinkish-buff, orbital ring red. Bill dark, blackish horn. Tarsi and feet purplish-pink, soles dirty buff.

Similar species: The only similar species, the Peaceful Dove Geopelia striata, is easily distinguished by its much smaller size, and its more terrestrial habits.

Status, Habitat & Behaviour: Resident, common and widespread throughout Singapore, large numbers having been imported to support the cage bird industry (Wang & Hails 2007).

Usually seen singly or in pairs, occasionally in small family parties, walking along roads and paths, searching for food. it has been known to congregate into much larger flocks in peninsular Malaysia (Bucknill & Chasen 1927).

It is found in open country around human settlements, wherever there are patches of short grass and bushes, cultivated areas or rice fields, but not in the jungle or in mangroves. In Sarawak, it has been recorded to 1600 m. They are very tame and are easily approachable, often being seen on lawns and grassy areas in gardens, villages and towns, mostly on the ground, walking along roads and paths, searching for food. When disturbed, they usually take off vertically upwards with an explosive clap of its wings, usually flying up into the nearest tree or, often, settling on the ground just a short distance away. Its flight is strong and direct. When landing, its wings are outstretched in a braking movement, it tail is fanned wide, clearly revealing the white tips to its feathers.

Food: Its diet consists largely of grain, grass and other seeds, also some insects..

Voice and Calls: Its call is a soft musical cooing note, cuck-cuck-crooo-cruck, generally repeated three or four times.

Breeding: They appear to breed all year round. Several courtship and pair-bonding rituals have been noted, such as allopreening (Wee 2007), and the ruffling up of feathers at the back of the nape, and bowing the head low into the chest with each call. The display flight consists of a flight straight up into the air, then a glide downwards with wings and tail stiffly spread (Bucknill & Chasen 1927). Nests have been found as low as 3 feet above ground level but, more usually, are placed 10 to 20 feet up a small shrub or bamboo clump, also in the forks of roadside trees, sometimes quite close to open ground. In Singapore (Mok 2008), as in India, they often nest in the eaves and ledges of town houses. Its nest, like that of most pigeons, is quite flimsy. Using a few twigs for a foundation (Amar-Singh 2010), some finer twigs, small roots, coarse grasses as well as weed stems, are interwoven to form a fragile and almost transparent platform just 2 or 3 cm. deep and about 15 cm. across. The normal clutch consists of two white glossy oval-shaped eggs, 28 x 21 mm in size. Both parents share duties in nest building, incubation and care of young. Incubation takes 13 to 15 days. The nestlings, covered with yellowish hair-like down, are fed by regurgitated crop milk, a secretion produced by the parents (Chan 2007).

Moult: Birds in wing moult were taken on 19 February - moulting P1), and 23 April - moulting P3 and P4 (Medway & Wells 1976). A breeding bird in wing moult was trapped at Sungei Buloh on 23 July.

Measurements: (n=2)
Wing: 139 - 142 mm Bill: 21 mm Tarsus: 23 - 24 mm
Tail: 135 - 140 mm Weight: 134 - 172 gms Tarsus diameter: 4.3 - 5.1 mm

Pigeons and doves

Order Columbiformes (Pigeons)
Family Columbidae (Pigeons)
The sandgrouse used to be grouped in the same order but has since been separated (Order Pteroclidiformes) and placed between the waders and pigeons. This order contains not only pigeons but also the extinct dodos. The passenger pigeon of North America joined the extinct dodos in 1914. There is really no good distinction between pigeons and doves, although the latter are generally smaller. We'll use 'pigeon' to refer to both. Pigeons are see-eaters or frugivores. They produce crop milk to feed their chicks. The world has 308 species of pigeons.

There are 12 species to be found in Singapore. The most common is the Rock Pigeon. The Zebra and Spotted Doves are two very common brown pigeons in Singapore. They can be distinguished by their size and body patterns. The Spotted Dove is larger and has spots on the back of the neck, while the Zebra Dove is smaller and has bars at the back of the neck. The Red Collared Dove does look like a brown pigeon at a distance, but up close they look red (female looks brown) and there is a black collar instead of spots and bars. The next pigeon one is likely to encounter is the Pink-necked Green Pigeon. This is a colourful pigeon. The other 7 are uncommon or rare.

Zebra Dove (Geopelia striata)

(Tan KH)

It was previously confused with the Peaceful Dove (Geopelia placida), which is native to Australia. They look alike and both are greyish-brown with bars all over the body, as well as the blue skin around the eyes. A popular caged bird in Singapore.

Common resident breeder
Length: 20-22cm
Habitat: Urban area
Native Distribution: Peninsula Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia
Introduced Distribution: Hawaii (1922), Philippines, Seychelles

Spotted Dove (Streptopelia chinensis)

(Lau SY)

Formerly known as Spotted-necked Dove because of the spots on the back of the neck. This native to South Asia has been introduced to other countries. It is a frequently poached bird in Singapore and is a popular caged bird, eventhough they can only coo.

Abundant resident breeder
Length: 28-32cm
Flight: Strong swift direct with rapid wing beats
Habitat: Urban area
Native Distribution: India, Sri Lanka to S China to SE Asia
Introduced Distribution: SW CA, US (1917), Indonesia, Australia, New Zealand
Nest: Stick nest in tree
Diet: Seed

Red Collared Dove (Streptopelia tranquebarica)

Male at Tampines (Danny Lau) Male at Lor Halus (Tan KH)
Also known as the Red Turtle Dove. The male has a reddish body with black collar on the back of the neck and bluish-grey head, rump and uppertail. The female is more reddish-brown all over. Juvenile is like the female but without a collar. This bird is not native to Singapore, but is doing well in dry open areas like Lorong Halus, Changi grassland, Neo Tiew Lane, Pulau Ubin.

Common introduced resident breeder
Length: 23cm
Habitat: open grassland
Distribution: S Asia
Diet: Seed

Emerald Dove (Chalcophaps indica)

Male Emerald Dove. Left: Sime Forest (Con Foley), centre: Sime Forest (Danny Lau), right: Sungei Buloh (Danny Lau)


Juvenile at Kranji Nature Trail (Danny Lau)

Also known as Green-winged Pigeon. Can be seen on the ground along trails in forests and mangroves. They have emerald green back and wings, pinkish-brown head and body. The male has a grey cap which the female lacks. Juvenile like female. Sighted at Sime Forest, Sungei Buloh, Bukit Timah, Pulau Ubin.

Uncommon resident
Length: 23-28cm
Habitat: Forest, mangrove
Distribution: India to Indonesia, N, E Australia
Nest: Stick nest in tree
Diet: Seed, fruit

Jambu Fruit Dove (Ptilinopus jambu)

Female, Bukit Batok Nature Park (Tan KH) Female, Sime Forest (Yamane Yoshio)

Juvenile, Botanic Gardens (Lau SY) Female, Panti Forest (Danny Lau)

Chinese Garden. Left Male, Right Female (Tan GC)

They have white eye ring, yellow bill, green upperpart. The male has a dark pink face, pink breast and white underpart. The female has a light purple face, green breast, white belly. The juvenile is like female but with green face. Unlike the emerald doves, they are found in trees instead of on the ground. Can be found at Sime Forest, Bukit Batok Nature Park, Botanic Gardens, Japanese Garden.

Uncommon non-breeding visitor
Length: 23-27cm
Habitat: Mangrove, forest, woodland
Distribution: S Thailand, Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia
Nest: Stick-and-grass nest in tree
Diet: Fruit

Thick-billed Green Pigeon (Treron curvirostra)

Male at Sime forest Jelutong tower (Yamane Yoshio). Left male, right female at Bukit Timah Summit (Tan GC).


Nee Soon Swamp. Left female, right male (Danny Lau)

The male has maroon wings, green eye skin patch and green underpart. The female is green all over. Central Catchment is one sure place to see this bird.

Uncommon resident breeder
Length: 25-27cm
Habitat: Forest
Distribution: Indian subcontinent, China, SE Asia

Cinnamon-headed Green Pigeon (Treron fulvicollis)

Male at Vita-Penawar Plantation near Desaru (Tan GC).


Left: Male, Right: female at Panti, Malaysia (Lau JS)

The male has bright orange head and maroon wings, while the female is green all over. Might be extinct in Thailand. Sighted at Pulau Ubin, Sungei Buloh.

Rare non-breeding visitor
Length: 25-26cm
Habitat: Forest, mangrove, wooded area
Distribution: Myanmar, Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia, Brunei

Little Green Pigeon (Treron olax)

Females left (Danny Lau), male right (Tan KH) at Panti, Malaysia

Also has maroon wings, but lacks the eye patch and has a grey head and orange breast. Like most green-pigeon females, the female is green all over. Sighted at Bukit Timah, Central Catchment.

Rare resident
Length: 20cm
Habitat: Forest
Distribution: Thailand, Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia

Pink-necked Green Pigeon (Treron vernans)

Left: male, Right: females (Lau SY)


Male (Tan KH) Female (Tan KH) Male (Fong CW)
A very common bird in wooded area regardless of forest, mangrove, garden or urban area. Looks like Rock Pigeon, but much more colourful. The male has a pink neck, orange breast, green belly and wings. The female is green overall. Juvenile like female.

Common resident breeder
Length: 30-35cm
Habitat: Garden, wooded area, forest, mangrove, urban area
Distribution: SE Asia

Rock Pigeon (Columba livia)

(Tan KH) (Lau SY)
Previously known as Rock Dove, it is officially known as Rock Pigeon now. It is commonly simply called 'pigeon'. In Singapore, it is feral, which means their ancestors escaped from domestication into the wild. Being highly adaptable, they have been successfully introduced to all over the world. They have many morphs, from all white to black-and-white, white-and-brown to blue-and-grey. Due to their uncanning ability to return to their point of release, they were used as homing pigeons. They were also bred for food. They are now more of a pest and their droppings carry diseases.

Abundant introduced resident breeder
Length: 30-35cm
Wingspan: 62-68cm
Habitat: Cliffs (wild), Urban (feral)
Distribution: Native to W, S Europe, N Africa, SW Asia; introduced all over the world
Nest: Grass on ledge in cave (wild), building (feral)
Diet: Seeds, grains, bread

Pied Imperial Pigeon (Ducula bicolor)

Zoo (Tan GC)

This large pigeon is almost all white except for the black flight feathers and tail. A flock of free-ranging pigeons from the birdpark has been spotted around Jurong area (e.g. Jurong Lake, Poyan). Other places are southern islands, Labrador Park, Bukit Batok West.

Rare non-breeding visitor
Length: 37-44cm
Habitat: Island, mangrove, forest, woodland
Distribution: Nicobar Island to New Guinea, Australia
Nest: Stick nest in tree
Diet: Fruit

Green Imperial Pigeon (Ducula aenea)

1 Green Imperial Pigeon with 2 Pied Imperial Pigeons at Jurong Birdpark (Tan KH)

A large pigeon with white head and underpart, and green back, wings and tail. Sexes similar. Sighted at Bukit Batok Nature Park.

Rare accidental
Length: 40-45cm
Habitat: Upper canopy of forest
Distribution: India to Indonesia
Nest: Stick nest in tree
Diet: Fruit

Pigeons outside Singapore

Mourning Doves, Boise, US (Tan KH) Eurasian Collared Dove, India (Lau SY)

Lesser Cuckoo-dove, Fraser's Hill, Malaysia (Tan GC) Mountain Imperial Pigeons, Genting, Malaysia (Tan GC)

Wedge-tailed Green Pigeon, Fraser's Hill, Malaysia (Con Foley) Oriental Turtle Dove, Japan (Yamane Yoshio)
 
Crested Pigeon, Adelaide, Australia (Tan KH)  

How Psychotechnology Works
by John Fuller
Sebastian Willnow/AFP/Getty ImagesStanislavs Bardins of Munich's Ludwig-Maximilians-University demonstrates the prototype of a video camera controlled by the eyes in Hanover, Germany. The camera could be used in application fields of psychology and market research.
Why do we do the things we do? It's a question psychologists have been asking for centuries. For the most part, the connection between the body and the mind has remained a mystery to us. How we perceive the world and learn new things still fascinates and confounds us. Are we born with certain qualities, or are we the product of our experiences and upbringing? How do we form an idea, gather information and learn to adapt?
Since there's no simple way to see what goes on in our minds, scientists use one of the major branches of psychology to attempt to make sense of it: theoretical psychology. Just like theoretical physics, this type of psychology allows us to hypothesize about something we can't quite visualize. That, of course, doesn't stop people from arguing about each other's ideas, but at least theoretical psychology tries to move things forward.
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When scientists want to see actual numbers and data that back up those ideas and principles, however, they turn to applied psychology. Because we can't conduct psychological tests or studies on ourselves, we can perform tests on individuals or groups in order to make sense of our actions and understand the processes of the mind. Psychological testing gives us tangible data, or psychometrics, to work with, helping us to grasp the more intangible aspects of the psyche. Its uses are broad: People use psychological testing in areas like education, the workplace, counseling and health.
Psychologists look to study the behavior of people in certain situations in the hopes of understanding, predicting and even controlling human thought processes and emotions. To do so, they use a wide range of tools, commonly known as psychotechnology, to reach various conclusions regarding the mind. What are these tools? What specifically are they used for? Are there any negative aspects or misuses of such technology? To learn how psychologists dive into our minds, read on.
Psychotechnology in Practice
Because it's such a loose term, psychotechnology encompasses a broad spectrum of tools. Technology doesn't imply just computers and fancy gadgets; some of the most important factors psychologists can apply to subjects are the straightforward guidelines of tests and the data one receives from those tests.
Indeed, some of the simplest technologies have led to the more important discoveries in psychological thinking. One of the most famous examples of applied psychology occurred when Russian research physiologist Ivan Pavlov was studying digestion in animals, particularly dogs. During the early 1900s, Pavlov was researching gastric reflexes -- the secretion of gastric juices upon eating food -- in canines. He was able to do this by surgically implanting small pouches into the laboratory dog's stomachs, which would collect the juices while keeping food from contaminating any samples.
Before going through with any tests, however, Pavlov was confronted with a slight nuisance. The dogs, whether or not there was food in the room, would start salivating; all it took was an assistant to walk into the room, and the samples in the dog's pouch would be corrupted.
Pavlov's main area of study was the physical nature of reflexes, and he reportedly detested the entire field of psychology, firing employees for using any psychological language. But he couldn't ignore this interesting reflex. He decided to put the dogs in a room by themselves, keeping human presence out of the way so as not to signal the possibility of food. After a buzzer sounded, however, food was dropped through a chute into a dish, somewhere between five and 35 seconds later. At first, the dogs showed a normal reflex, pricking their ears at the sound of the buzzer. But after just a few of these tests, the buzzer would trigger a dog's urge to salivate, whether or not food had arrived. While a dog salivating at the presence of food in its mouth is what Pavlov called an "unconditioned response" -- a natural reflex built into an animal's psyche -- his experiment was a "conditioned response." A trigger as simple as a buzzer highlighted the process of learning behavior, which were "a long chain of conditioned reflexes" built into the mind over time.
One of the most commonly known forms of psychotechnology is the standardized test. Most people know about intelligence quotient, or IQ, tests, which give theoretical scores that measure a person's memory and language, spatial and mathematical abilities. High school students looking to get accepted into a university are most likely familiar with the SAT, or the Standard Aptitude Test. While these tests are typically used by educational institutions to gather data on intelligence and compare scores, business and industry organizations often use standardized testing to survey employees or analyze performance.
Time & Life Pictures/Getty ImagesClinical psychologist Albert Carlin, co-creator of cyber therapy, an approach to treating phobias through virtual reality, posing over a virtual screen peppered with spiders in the University of Washington Human Interface Technology Laboratory.
Of course, electronics and gadgets still have their place in psychological testing. For example, psychiatric professors at Oxford University used cell phones and text messaging to study and help patients with bipolar disorder. Again, the professors devised a simple method for monitoring patient's moods -- staff members at the mental health center sent text messages once a week to patients, asking them to respond with a report on how they're feeling. If someone is experiencing difficulties, according to the staff, text messaging notifies the staff quicker and reduces the anxiety of planning appointments [source: Grohol]. Video games and virtual reality are also an important part of psychotechnology -- combat games that simulate battle conditions help soldiers suffering from Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) and let psychologists record important reactions.
There are several practical uses of psychotechnology, but when does it present problems? To read about the potential misuses of psychotechnology, see the next page.
Controversial Uses of Psychotechnology
If you've ever seen Stanley Kubrick's controversial film adaptation of Anthony Burgess's novel, "A Clockwork Orange," you might have a negative impression of psychotechnology. In both the novel and the film, a young teenager named Alex spends his time hanging out with his "droogs" -- slang for friends -- and committing atrocious acts of "ultraviolence." Alex and his droogs have a general disregard for law, order and authority, but one night, in the middle of a robbery, Alex kills a woman and is arrested. He is sent to jail for 14 years, but after completing a just two years of his sentence, Alex hears of a rehabilitation program, called the "Ludovico Technique," that will cure him of any urge to commit crime. Alex agrees, unaware of the horrifying, drug-induced treatment he'll have to undergo. Staff members at the prison affix a contraption to his head, keeping his eyes open and forcing him to watch horrifying images. The drugs he's been forced to take make him sick while watching these films, essentially conditioning him to retch at the possibility of violence.
Burgess and Kubrick were creating an imaginary, dystopian world to offer social satire, but is there anything like this in real life? Although most current societies haven't descended into authoritarian chaos, most examples of psychological testing eventually come with their share of controversy.
East News/Getty ImagesA volunteer is prepared for tests in the laboratory for psycho-physiological research at the Shikhany research center near the town of Saratov, Russia.
One of the most recent examples of fear and skepticism comes from the U.S. Department of Homeland Security and its interest in the Russian-based Psychotechnology Research Institute, located in the country's capital, Moscow. The institute developed an anti-terrorism technology called Semantic Stimuli Response Measurements Technology, or SSRM Tek.
According to a Wired magazine article, the software is a simple computer game that flashes quick, essentially unnoticeable subliminal images across the screen -- pictures of Osama bin Laden or the World Trade Center, for instance. A person taking the test presses a button in response to the images, without taking the time to think about what he or she is seeing. According to the institute, the test is able to detect a subtle difference between a terrorist's involuntary response and that of an innocent person's. The technology has been marketed as a useful system in airports, where flyers would take the test at checkpoints. Those registering a suspicious response would have to undergo extra checks.
Some argue, though, that no electronic technology can correctly pick terrorists and identify other complex traits and behaviors in humans; according to neuroscientist Geoff Schoenbaum, modern psychology is "still working at the level of how rats learn that light predicts food," the same concept physiologist Ivan Pavlov worked on more than a century ago with dogs. Many worry that any errors in these kinds of psychological tests could lead to mistaken accusations, something the scientific community and proponents of psychotechnology would like to avoid.
For lots more information on the mind and its state, see the next page.
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More Great Links
PsychCentral.com
Sources
French, Andrew. "Patients text messages win award." Oxford Mail. July 7, 2008. http://www.oxfordmail.net/display.var.2382994.0.patients_text_messages_win_award.php
Grohol, John. "Text messaging for bipolar disorder." PsychCentral.com. July 9, 2008.http://psychcentral.com/blog/archives/2008/07/09/text-messaging-for-bipolar-disorder/
Hunt, Morton. The Story of Psychology. New York: Anchor Books, 2007.
Jardin, Xeni. "Virtual reality therapy for combat stress." NPR.org. Aug. 19, 2005.http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=4806921
Weinberger, Sharon. "The weird Russian mind-control research behind a DHS contract." Wired. Sept. 20, 2007. http://www.wired.com/politics/security/news/2007/09/mind_reading

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What Is the Best Type of Martial Arts?
By Robert Rousseau, About.com Guide
See More About:martial arts stylesself defensekung fukaratebrazilian jiu jitsu
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The reality is that there is no best type of martial arts. Rather, each type or style possesses its own unique strengths and weaknesses. It’s really about the style that suits what you’re looking to do and learn, rather than a global best kind.
That said, there are some things to consider when looking for the best fit of martial arts for you.

Physical Condition: Some martial arts types, such as Brazilian Jiu Jitsu and MMA, require a high level of physical fitness. Further, it’s recommended that you actually come into the gym or school in reasonable shape or risk some very hard early days. Along with this, if it’s just that you’re out of shape, no problem. All you’ll need is the drive to get yourself back in excellent physical condition before getting involved in such a program. Work that cardio and core, if you will.

On the other hand, if age or injuries are a significant factor, you may want to stay away from high contact schools or those that have very high intensity workouts. Further, depending on where your particular injuries are and how they flare up, you may want to give the next consideration some thought.

Striking, Grappling, or Both: Do you want to fight standing up via the use of punches, kicks, knees, elbows, and more? Then consider the striking arts of kickboxing, or kung fu, karate, and Tae Kwon Do, for example. Do you want to grapple? Then get involved in Brazilian Jiu Jitsu, wrestling, or judo (although judo is a throwing style, there are many schools that also go heavily into ground fighting as well).

Then again, perhaps you want to do both, in which case an MMA gym or school that teaches multiple styles may be right for you. Remember to think about your physical condition, as was noted previously, when deciding on the kind of martial arts to partake in. For example, if you have a recurring neck injury then Brazilian Jiu Jitsu, an art where people are continually trying to choke you from various positions, may not be for you.

Schedule and Distance: Just remember that before joining a martial arts school, distance and the schedule matters. If the schedule doesn’t work for you, it will eventually wear on you. In addition, if the school is too far away then that’s not exactly going to make it easy to keep going either.

Set yourself up for success.

Self-Defense Martial Arts Arguments: Simply put, this is something that you should know when talking with instructors and looking at schools, as it’s sure to come up. Are you looking to learn a martial arts style that claims it will teach you self-defense? Then you’re in luck.

Pretty much all martial arts styles claim to do just that. However, be aware that there are those in the martial arts community that believe sport martial arts do not really teach real-world self-defense skills, as sports are designed to allow practitioners to continue fighting, whereas real world self defense requires that practitioners end a fight quickly. After all, if sport martial arts allowed killing moves then there would be fewer athletes around after tournaments, no?

On the flip side, some sports martial artists believe styles that do not allow sparring at full go or near full go do not prepare martial artists to truly test themselves in real life situations. In other words, if you only practice moves partially either by stopping short, etc., then they’re likely to not work in real life. Such is the case with some traditional styles and schools. These people also point to mixed martial arts tournaments like the UFC, where many of the traditional martial arts styles did poorly early on.

Then again, some of their finishing moves were illegal at the time.

Of course, there is more to the argument than the aforementioned and this article is hardly about taking sides. But just be aware that you may hear some of these ideologies being thrown around in your search for the best martial arts type for you. Thus, it's something to consider.

Sport Martial Arts: Some people are looking to engage in martial arts as a sport. Along with this, many styles of martial arts have a sport associated with them. For example, judo was actually invented by Dr. Jigori Kano in order to be just that—a sport. Further, there are numerous Brazilian Jiu Jitsu, karate, kung fu, and Tae Kwon Do tournaments available for would-be practitioners.

However, not all sport martial arts are considered equal in terms of the contact involved. Kickboxing, for example, will likely involve a significant amount of stand up sparring and contact. Brazilian Jiu Jitsu will involve little to none of that, but will certainly test your grappling skills at a full go pace. On the other hand, there are several karate schools out there where there is almost no full contact sparring going on. Included are tournaments that involve only mild contact.

These are some of the considerations for would-be sport martial artists.

In the end, there is a best martial arts type out there for you; it just needs to be found. Good luck in your search. On the next page are some of the more well-known styles for you to choose from.

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Can tourism kill a destination?
by Clint Pumphrey
©iStockphoto.com/LaoshiParts of the Great Wall have already been hurt by tourism. See more pictures of famous landmarks.
Whether you travel to the mountains, the beach or a theme park, vacations are a time to relax and take a break from the daily grind. Individually, these excursions can hardly be considered harmful. After all, experiencing a national park by car or touring a historic site alone causes few noticeable negative effects. It's the cumulative effects of many pleasure trips -- more than 1.4 billion in the United States in 2001 -- that damage or disrupt many tourist destinations.
Tourism, as an industry, does offer some significant economic benefits. In 2008, Americans spent a total of $767 billion on tourism-related costs like hotels, air travel, food and shopping. This spending funneled down into individual communities in the form of income for business owners and sales tax revenue for state and local governments. For example, Gatlinburg, Tenn., a tourist town in the Appalachian Mountains with just 4,000 permanent residents, brought in almost $12 million in taxes during the 2008 to 2009 fiscal year. Tourism also creates jobs. Hotel staff, airline pilots, souvenir vendors and other tourism-related jobs totaled 5.9 million in 2008. For these reasons, economically depressed towns suffering from a loss of industry or population often try to attract tourists to stop or even stay in their communities.
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While these economic benefits are impressive, there are reasons why scholars have called tourism a "devil's bargain." Tourism either poses a threat to the natural or man-made environment, or it poses a threat to the local culture and society (and sometimes it does both). Vacation destinations are unique in that they must try to accommodate a large number of tourists without disturbing the setting to which the tourists are attracted. Places as varied as Yellowstone National Park and the Great Wall of China must contend with this dilemma -- allowing as many people as possible to experience the sights without disturbing habitat or desecrating ancient architecture. Similarly, the communities that attract tourists are altered. Longtime citizens may not recognize their hometown once tourist development takes hold.
On the next page, we'll take a look at how tourism can hurt the destination's environment.
Tourism's Effect on the Environment
Limiting Tourism
Tourist destinations are rarely shut down, since many communities depend on the income they attract. However, it's fairly common for attractions to limit tourism in an effort to control environmental degradation. Yellowstone National Park only admits 318 snowmobiles per day during the winter months, all of which must use cleaner and quieter technology and be led by a commercial guide. Perhaps the most controlled destination in the United States is Lechuguilla Cave in New Mexico. Located just miles from the more famous Carlsbad Caverns, Lechuguilla is widely considered one of the most spectacular caves on Earth. Since the discovery of the cave's delicate, unspoiled formations in 1986, the National Park Service (NPS) has limited access to approved scientific researchers, survey and exploration teams, and NPS management-related trips.
Tourism has become increasingly popular over the last century as more and more people have gained access to car travel, air travel and vacation time from work. One draw for tourists is the world's natural wonders, which are appealing for their scenery and wild, unspoiled beauty. Do you see a paradox for these areas? They must balance visitation and development with environmental preservation. Man-made tourist destinations -- iconic structures of immense cultural or architectural importance -- face similar challenges. The volume of visitors must be controlled because ancient walls and sculptures are often extraordinarily fragile and particularly prone to vandalism.
If left to their own devices, tourists can often be very destructive. Yellowstone National Park is perhaps the best example of such unfortunate behavior. Problems began soon after President Ulysses S. Grant created the park in 1872. Companies cut timber, killed wildlife, farmed the land and even rechanneled some of the hot springs. Tourists carved their names into rocks and trees, broke off pieces of ancient formations for souvenirs, and even put laundry soap in the geysers with the mistaken belief that it would hasten the eruption. In an effort restore order, the United States Army troops, under General Philip Sheridan, occupied the park in 1886 and stayed for three decades. Today, the park operates under a very strict set of rules as it continues to recover from decades of uncontrolled tourism.
Another natural place that has experienced environmental degradation is Mount Everest, though it's less due to ignorance than the sheer difficulty of trash disposal on the world's highest peak. A 1963 National Geographic article dubbed Mount Everest "the highest junkyard on Earth" due to the mountain of discarded oxygen bottles, kerosene containers and climbing gear left on its slopes. After another five decades of climbing, the trash has gotten so bad that climbers plan expeditions specifically for trash collection. For example, in April 2010, concerned climbers began an expedition to remove 4,410 pounds (2,000 kilograms) of garbage from the "death-zone," the dangerous region above 26,250 feet (8,000 meters).
Man-made wonders have also fallen victim to overzealous tourism. One such structure is the Great Wall of China, an ancient series of fortifications 4,000 miles (6,400 kilometers) in length that are believed to be between 2,000 and 400 years old. This World Heritage Site fell victim to centuries of deterioration from natural erosion and dismantling by local citizens, but it's the estimated 13 million tourists that threaten the one-third of the wall that remains. Tourists have removed bricks and defaced surfaces, while developers created a Disneyland-like atmosphere around some of the wall's more popular sections.
Angkor Wat, a Hindu temple in Cambodia, experienced similar problems, and those in charge responded with around-the-clock security patrols to prevent vandalism and theft. Massive restoration efforts by organizations like the United Nations Educational, Scientific & Cultural Organization (UNESCO), Apsara (a Cambodian authority created by governmental decree in 1995), and the World Monuments Fund (WMF) saved the site -- which hosted 321,000 visitors in 2001 -- from certain deterioration. While efforts to protect such destinations have increased over the last decade, the threat posed by intensive tourism and overdevelopment is still very real.
Tourism's Effect on Communities
©iStockphoto.com/LaoshiIt's easy to see why people would pay good money to live in Jackson Hole, Wyo.'s incredible setting.
The effect tourism has on the environment gets a great deal of attention since scenery is often what draws people to destinations in the first place. But it's also important to recognize how tourism impacts communities and residents. Before towns build hotels, restaurants, gift shops and other attractions to accommodate tourists, they're often farming villages or mining towns -- typical places with typical people. Tourism changes all that. Outside business interests buy up land for commercial and residential developments, eventually pushing farmers, ranchers and small business owners out of a job. New people move in, raising land value and changing the identity of the community. Locals soon find themselves living in a hometown they don't recognize.
Changes in a community's identity can often be drastic. A great example of this is Aspen, Colo., a town whose transformation was so dramatic that "Aspenization" has come to describe any uncontrolled, undesirable development. In the early 1900s, Aspen was a mining town on the verge of extinction. But after World War II, the ski industry took hold and Swiss-chalet-style resorts began popping up everywhere. Today, Aspen would be virtually unrecognizable to those who lived there just 60 or 70 years ago.
Some sections of the Great Wall of China are undergoing similar identity changes. At Badaling, a restored section of wall from the Ming Dynasty is almost completely overshadowed by the Western-style development that threatens to engulf it. There, you can ride toboggans or cable cars before sitting down for lunch at KFC and coffee at Starbucks. The development at both Aspen and Badaling are good examples of how the identity of a place can change as a result of tourism.
The other harmful effect of tourism on a community is that the cost of living can become very high. As a destination becomes increasingly popular, more people want to live there, causing the land value to skyrocket, as was the case in Jackson Hole, Wyo., a former agricultural town at the gateway to Teton National Park. When tourism first began to take hold in the 1960s, small lots were selling for $12,500, a high price for the time. But by 2007, the median home price hit $1 million, and the cheapest condo sold for an incredible $512,500. Many local residents who were priced out of their own community decided to relocate. Workers in the town's restaurants, hotels and ski resorts, many of them earning minimum wage, also found it impossible to live in Jackson Hole. This situation caused resentment between laborers and locals, and the newcomers to the town. Unfortunately, communities everywhere now have to deal with these issues as the tourist industry grows around the world.
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