Check out this video on YouTube: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FPO5HP6LTpc&feature=youtube_gdata_player Sent from my iPad

The trouble with homework Annie Murphy Paul Sep 12 How effectively do children's after-school assignments actually advance learning? When you think of America's students, do you picture overworked, stressed-out children bent under backpacks stuffed with textbooks and worksheets? Or do you call to mind glassy-eyed, empty-headed teenagers sitting before computer screens, consumed by video games and social networking sites, even as their counterparts in China prepare to ace yet another round of academic exams? The first view dominates a series of recent books and movies, including the much-discussed film Race to Nowhere. The second image has been put forth by other books, with titles like The Dumbest Generation: How the Digital Age Stupefies Young Americans and Jeopardizes Our Future. Divergent though they are, these characterisations share a common emphasis: Homework. The studying that middle school and high school students do after the dismissal bell rings is either an unreasonable burden or a crucial activity that needs beefing up. Which is it? Do American students have too much homework or too little? Neither, I'd say. We ought to be asking a different question altogether. What should matter to parents and educators is this: How effectively do children's after-school assignments advance learning? The quantity of students' homework is a lot less important than its quality. And evidence suggests that as of now, homework is not making the grade. Although surveys show that the amount of time our children spend on homework has risen over the last three decades, American students are mired in the middle of international academic rankings: 17th in reading, 23rd in science and 31st in math, according to results from the Program for International Student Assessment released last December. A new study, coming in the Economics of Education Review, reports that homework in science, English and history has "little to no impact" on student test scores. (The authors did note a positive effect for math homework.) Enriching children's classroom learning requires making homework not shorter or longer, but smarter. Fortunately, research is available to help parents, teachers and school administrators do just that. In recent years, neuroscientists, cognitive scientists and educational psychologists have made a series of remarkable discoveries about how the human brain learns. They have founded a new discipline, known as Mind, Brain and Education, that is devoted to understanding and improving the ways in which children absorb, retain and apply knowledge. Educators have begun to implement these methods in classrooms around the country and have enjoyed measured success. A collaboration between psychologists at Washington University in St Louis and teachers at nearby Columbia Middle School, for example, lifted seventh- and eighth-grade students' science and social studies test scores by 13 to 25 per cent. But the innovations have not yet been applied to homework. SPACE OUT REPETITIONS "Spaced repetition" is one example of the kind of evidence-based techniques that researchers have found have a positive impact on learning. Here is how it works: Instead of concentrating the study of information in single blocks, as many homework assignments currently do - reading about, say, the Civil War one evening and Reconstruction the next - learners encounter the same material in briefer sessions spread over a longer period of time. With this approach, students are re-exposed to information about the Civil War and Reconstruction throughout the semester. It sounds unassuming, but spaced repetition produces impressive results. Eighth-grade history students who relied on a spaced approach to learning had nearly double the retention rate of students who studied the same material in a consolidated unit, reported researchers from the University of California-San Diego in 2007. The reason the method works so well goes back to the brain: When we first acquire memories, they are volatile, subject to change or likely to disappear. Exposing ourselves to information repeatedly over time fixes it more permanently in our minds, by strengthening the representation of the information that is embedded in our neural networks. MEMORY RETRIEVAL PRACTICE A second learning technique, known as "retrieval practice", employs a familiar tool - the test - in a new way: Not to assess what students know, but to reinforce it. We often conceive of memory as something like a storage tank and a test as a kind of dipstick that measures how much information we have put in there. But that is not actually how the brain works. Every time we pull up a memory, we make it stronger and more lasting, so that testing does not just measure, it changes learning. Simply reading over material to be learned, or even taking notes and making outlines, as many homework assignments require, does not have this effect. According to one experiment, language learners who employed the retrieval practice strategy to study vocabulary words remembered 80 per cent of the words they studied, while learners who used conventional study methods remembered only about a third of them. Students - and parents - may groan at the prospect of more tests, but the self-quizzing involved in retrieval practice need not provoke any anxiety. It is simply an effective way to focus less on the input of knowledge (passively reading over textbooks and notes) and more on its output (calling up that same information from one's own brain). THE HARDER IT IS ... Another common misconception about how we learn holds that if information feels easy to absorb, we have learned it well. In fact, the opposite is true. When we work hard to understand information, we recall it better; the extra effort signals the brain that this knowledge is worth keeping. This phenomenon, known as cognitive disfluency, promotes learning so effectively that psychologists have devised all manner of "desirable difficulties" to introduce into the learning process: For example, sprinkling a passage with punctuation mistakes, deliberately leaving out letters, shrinking font size until it is tiny or wiggling a document while it is being copied so that words come out blurry. Teachers are unlikely to start sending students home with smudged or error-filled worksheets, but there is another kind of desirable difficulty - called interleaving - that can readily be applied to homework. An interleaved assignment mixes up different kinds of situations or problems to be practised, instead of grouping them by type. When students cannot tell in advance what kind of knowledge or problem-solving strategy will be required to answer a question, their brains have to work harder to come up with the solution, and the result is that students learn the material more thoroughly. Researchers at California Polytechnic State University conducted a study of interleaving in sports that illustrates why the tactic is so effective. When baseball players practised hitting, interleaving different kinds of pitches improved their performance on a later test in which the batters did not know the type of pitch in advance (as would be the case, of course, in a real game). Interleaving produces the same sort of improvement in academic learning. A study published last year in the journal Applied Cognitive Psychology asked fourth-graders to work on solving four types of math problems and then to take a test evaluating how well they had learned. The scores of those whose practise problems were mixed up were more than double the scores of those students who had practiced one kind of problem at a time. The application of such research-based strategies to homework is a yet-untapped opportunity to raise student achievement. Science has shown us how to turn homework into a potent catalyst for learning. Our assignment now is to make it happen. THE NEW YORK TIMES Annie Murphy Paul is the author of Origins, who is at work on a new book about the science of learning.

How to spot a con artist

Brian k Kemp
 
How to Spot A Con Artist
 
Investing in securities is risky enough without worrying about whether your salesperson is out to fleece you. To be an informed investor, you must know what danger signs to look for. Some are subtle, and some are easier to spot.

Rule Number 1: Con Artists Do Not Like To Be Found

Con artists know that being themselves hurts business. Effective con artists must disguise their true motives. Whether your first contact with the con artist is through an unsolicited telephone call or a stranger ringing your doorbell, the con artist takes great pains to look, sound and speak like you or me. Often, con artists like to blend in with others in your group whether that group is political, community (such as the local senior center), religious or other. They quickly get to know a lot of people in the group so they can count on this common bond to spread the word about their questionable investments and reel in unsuspecting investors.

Rule Number 2: Con Artists Dress For Success

Even though con artists would like you to believe that they are "just plain folk," they are smart enough to realize that this alone will not sway you to part with your money. They work very hard to come across as smooth, professional and successful. Con artists may dress like they are wealthy and work out of impressive looking offices. If your only contact is by mail, the office may bear a prestigious sounding address. Often, this is nothing more than a mail drop. Your best bet is to look behind the surface and do some serious investigating before you part with your money.

Rule Number 3: Con Artists Often Push Poorly Understood Financial Products

Today, a variety of institutions, from banks to brokerage firms to financial planners, offer a wide range of financial products. With such a confusing mix to choose from, it is no wonder that many people turn to financial advisers for guidance. Con artists know this and stand ready to assume full responsibility for your investment decisions. Don’t let them! When it comes to your money, think things through for yourself after getting all the facts. Never give someone control over your purse strings just because you think you are too old, young or financially inexperienced. If you really need help, only deal with financial advisers, broker-dealers or financial institutions with a proven track record.

Con artists also appeal to the dreamer in you. Many people secretly believe that Horatio Alger’s rags-to-riches story can become a reality for them -- if only they get the right break. To them, investing in untested technologies and cutting edge product s before anyone else does is a sure-fire way to make money. International instruments such as letters of credit supposedly issued by foreign banks may spell stability for some people. Con artists sabotage your dreams. They promise you the investment chance of a lifetime without giving you any meaningful written information on the product or the pitfalls involved.

Rule Number 4: Con Artists Bring Out The Worst In You

Skilled con artists can bring out your worst traits, particularly greed, fear, and insecurity. Fear comes into play when the con artist warns you that complaining about a failed investment to the government may result in your spoiling it for others or "rocking the boat." Con artists try to make you feel inadequate if you don’t believe them. In addition, con artists know how to make you believe that if you lack confidence in them, this is a personal slight to their abilities. If you find yourself making investment-related decisions based only on your emotions, watch out!

Rule Number 5: Con Artists Are Fair Weather Friends

Before you invest, con artists are very friendly. They take a personal interest in you out of the blue. They call back when they promised they would. Each time, they tell you even more good things about the investment. You may feel you’re being pressured into investing. You are. Face it. Despite his or her kind words, the con artist will do anything in his or her power to make a sale. In fact, the contacts may become so repeated that you may wish that your first contact had been your last. Too of ten, however, once you have invested your money, contact with the con artist dwindles and then stops altogether. If you cannot get answers to your questions following your investment, this may signal danger.

Rule Number 6: For Every Silver Lining, There Is A Cloud

Every investment involves risk. But to hear the con artist explain it, the investment may be too good to be true. Trust your inner voice if you hear claims like these:

“I just got a hot tip from an inside source that this stock will go through the roof."
“The rumor on the Street is that this deal is ready to take off."
“Your return is guaranteed. There’s no way you can lose money."
“Gotta get in on the ground floor now or you’ll be left out in the cold. In fact, we’ll send a messenger over tomorrow to pick up your check." (Con artists often use this device to avoid federal mail fraud charges.)
“Where else can you earn such a large return? Not in CDs or in a savings account."
“In just a short while, your profits will come rolling in."
“This deal is so great, I invested in it myself."
“If this doesn’t perform as I just said, we’ll refund your money no questions asked."
“Everyone else that invested in this did very well."

Be especially careful if the salesperson downplays any downside or denies that risk exists. Con artists usually are not very good at answering important questions. Watch out if the salesperson becomes reluctant to provide information on the following:

The background, educational history and work experience of the deal’s promoters, principals or general partners
Information on whether your investment monies will be segregated from other funds available to the business
Written information on the business` financial condition, such as a balance sheet and bank references
The prior track record of the business and its principals
The salesperson’s name, where he or she is calling from, who he or she works for, his or her background and what commission or other compensation he or she will receive
The salesperson’s connection with the venture and any affiliates

In addition, be wary if the salesperson doesn’t ask you questions about your past investment experience and your ability to withstand risk. Even if the salesperson does ask a few related questions, take heed if you get the sense that he or she is merely going through the motions.

Rule Number 7: Watch Out For The Man From P.O.N.Z.I (Pay-Out now, Zero Imminent)

No self-respecting con artist would actually admit that he or she was involved in a Ponzi scheme. The Ponzi scheme was named after Charles Ponzi, an Italian immigrant who, after being jailed in Canada for fraud, moved to Boston in the early part of this century. Ponzi solicited people to invest in International Postal Reply Coupons which could be redeemed for stamps. He promised them a 40 percent return in just 90 days. Ultimately, the authorities discovered that there weren’t enough coupons in circulation to support Ponzi`s schemes. Ponzi was imprisoned in Massachusetts and then deported to Italy. The scheme he created, however, continues to survive in many forms.

In a typical Ponzi scheme, large returns are paid to initial investors out of the funds of later investors. Not only does this give the first investors confidence in the deal, but it motivates others to invest. Unfortunately, the later investors lose all or most of their money to the con artist. If you are promised high, guaranteed profits and given no written explanation concerning the investment vehicle, the promoter’s background or the risks involved, be careful. A Ponzi scheme may be at work. Ponzi operators also tend to persuade you to "roll over" your "profits" into still another investment - so your return only ends up being on paper.

Rule Number 8: Steer Clear Of Pyramid Schemes

Pyramid schemes are a variation of the Ponzi scam. Think of a pyramid. Money is collected from people on the bottom to pay off other individuals farther up the pyramid. As more people invest, new pyramid levels are created, and your position in the pyramid rises. In theory, you would be entitled to more money. Many times, you must also buy a product to join.

However, unlike a true multi-level marketing plan, selling the product is less important than recruiting others to join the network. Ultimately, there comes a time when no new money flows in. When this happens, the pyramid collapses.

Tips On Not Falling Prey To A Con Artist

Avoiding being hurt by a con artist is as easy as doing your homework -- before you invest.
Contact your state or provincial securities regulator to see if the investment vehicle and the person selling it are registered.
Your state or provincial securities regulator will also be able to tell you if the salesperson has a disciplinary history, that is, whether any civil, criminal or administrative proceedings have been brought against him or her.
Contact your local Better Business Bureau to see if any complaints have been filed against the venture’s promoters or principals.
Deal only with financial advisers, broker-dealers or financial institutions having a proven track record.
Ask for written information on the investment product and the business. Such information, including financial data on the company and the risks involved in the investment, is contained in a prospectus. Read it carefully.
Don’t take everything you hear or read at face value. Ask questions if you don’t understand, and do some sleuthing for yourself. If you need help in evaluating the investment, go to someone independent whom you can trust such as an attorney or an accountant.
Steer clear of investments touted with no downside or risk.

Birds of Singapore

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This article contains instructions, advice, or how-to content. The purpose of Wikipedia is to present facts, not to train. Please help improve this article either by rewriting the how-to content or by moving it to Wikiversity or Wikibooks. (October 2010)
Singapore has 367 species of birds on the official checklist. In addition to these are some ornamental birds, escapees and free-ranging birds from the Singapore Zoo or Jurong Bird Park, making a total of about 400 bird species.
Contents [hide]
1 List of birds
1.1 Order Galliformes (Fowls)
1.2 Order Anseriformes (Waterfowls)
1.3 Order Podicipediformes (Grebes)
1.4 Order Procellariiformes (Tubenoses)
1.5 Order Pelecaniformes (Pelicans and relatives)
1.6 Order Ciconiiformes (Herons and relatives)
1.7 Order Falconiformes (Birds of prey)
1.8 Order Turniciformes (Buttonquails)
1.9 Order Gruiformes (Cranes and relatives)
1.10 Order Charadriiformes (Shorebirds)
1.11 Order Columbiformes (Pigeons)
1.12 Order Psittaciformes (Parrots)
1.13 Order Cuculiformes (Cuckoos and relatives)
1.14 Order Strigiformes (Owls)
1.15 Order Caprimulgiformes (Nightjars and relatives)
1.16 Order Apodiformes (Swifts)
1.17 Order Coraciiformes (Kingfishers and relatives)
1.18 Order Trogoniformes (Trogons)
1.19 Order Piciformes (Woodpeckers and relatives)
1.20 Order Passeriformes (Perching birds)
1.20.1 Family Pittidae (Pittas)
1.20.2 Family Eurylaimidae (Broadbills)
1.20.3 Family Acanthizidae (Gerygones and relatives)
1.20.4 Family Pachycephalidae (Whistlers and relatives)
1.20.5 Family Dicruridae (Monarchs, paradise flycatchers, drongos and relatives)
1.20.6 Family Prionopidae (Helmetshrikes and relatives)
1.20.7 Family Campephagidae (Cuckoo-shrikes, trillers, minivets and relatives)
1.20.8 Family Oriolidae (Old World orioles)
1.20.9 Family Corvidae (Crows and relatives)
1.20.10 Family Irenidae (Fairy bluebirds)
1.20.11 Family Chloropseidae (Leafbirds)
1.20.12 Family Laniidae (Shrikes)
1.20.13 Family Aegithinidae (Ioras)
1.20.14 Family Turdidae (Thrushes)
1.20.15 Family Muscicapidae (Old World flycatchers)
1.20.16 Family Sturnidae (Starlings, mynas, oxpeckers)
1.20.17 Family Hirundinidae (Swallows)
1.20.18 Family Pycnonotidae (Bulbuls)
1.20.19 Family Sylviidae (Old World warblers)
1.20.20 Family Timaliidae (Old World babblers)
1.20.21 Family Zosteropidae (White-eyes)
1.20.22 Family Dicaeidae (Flowerpeckers)
1.20.23 Family Nectariniidae (Sunbirds and spiderhunters)
1.20.24 Family Motacillidae (Wagtails, pipits and relatives)
1.20.25 Family Ploceidae (Weavers and relatives)
1.20.26 Family Estrildidae (Estrildid finches)
1.20.27 Family Viduidae (Indigobirds and Whydahs)
1.20.28 Family Fringillidae (True Finches)
1.20.29 Family Emberizidae (Buntings and relatives)
1.20.30 Family Passeridae (Old World sparrows)
2 See also
3 References
4 External links
[edit]List of birds

Abundance
VC = Very Common C = Common U = Uncommon
R = Rare VR = Very Rare Ex = Extinct
Status
I = Introduced rI = Reintroduced Es = Escapee
O = Ornamental F = Free-ranging RB = Resident Breeder
R = Resident WV = Winter Visitor PM = Passage Migrant
MB = Migrant Breeder V = Vagrant NBV = Non-breeding Visitor
Birding spots
BB = Bukit Batok BC = Bukit Brown Cemetery BG = Botanic Gardens
BT = Bukit Timah BW = Bidadari/Woodleigh CF = Central Forests
CR = Changi Reclaimed Land FC = Fort Canning JL = Jurong Lake
JS = Johor Strait KB = Khatib Bongsu KD = Kranji Dam/Reservoir
KM = Kranji Marsh KR = Kent Ridge Park LH = Lorong Halus
ME = Marina East MF = Mt Faber MM = Mandai Mudflat
MS = Marina South NT = Neo Tiew Lane PG = Punggol Grassland
PH = Pulau Hantu PP = Pulau Punggol PR = Pasir Ris
PS = Pulau Semakau PT = Pulau Tekong PU = Pulau Ubin
PY = Poyan SB = Sungei Buloh SE = Serangoon Estuary
SG = Simpang Grassland SJ = St John's Island SL = Seletar
SS = Singapore Strait ST = Sentosa TB = Telok Blangah Hill
TG = Tuas Grassland TP = Tampines WC = West Coast
[edit]Order Galliformes (Fowls)
Family Phasianidae (Pheasants and relatives)
Blue-breasted Quail (Coturnix chinensis) - U/RB - CR, LH, NT, PG, PP, SB, TG
Red Junglefowl (Gallus gallus) - U/RB+IRB - RB: PU. IRB: Northern and Western Singapore
Black Wood Partridge (Melanoperdix nigra) - Ex/RB
Crestless Fireback (Lophura erythropthalma) - Ex/RB
Malaysian Peacock Pheasant (Polyplectron malacense) - Ex/RB
Great Argus Pheasant (Argusianus argus) - Ex/RB
[edit]Order Anseriformes (Waterfowls)
Family Anatidae (Ducks, geese and swans)
Mute Swan (Cygnus olor) - U/O - BG
Black Swan (Cygnus atratus) - U/O - BG
Domestic Goose (Anser anser) - U/O - BG
Cotton Pygmy Goose (Nettapus coromandelianus) - VR/NBV, Ex/R - NBV: KM. R: LH, PY
Lesser Whistling Duck (Dendrocygna javanica) - C/RB - BG, KM, LH, MS, SB, SE, SL, WC
Wandering Whistling Duck (Dendrocygna arcuata) - U/IRB - BG, MS
Gadwall (Anas strepera) - VR/V
Northern Shoveler (Anas clypeata) - R/WV - CR, LH, SB
Eurasian Wigeon (Anas penelope) - VR/V
Garganey (Anas querquedula) - R/WV - CR, LH
Northern Pintail (Anas acuta) - VR/WV - PY
Common Teal (Anas crecca) - VR/V
Tufted Duck (Aythya fuligula) - VR/V - CR
Radjah Shelduck (Tadorna radjah) - U/O - BG
Mandarin Duck (Aix galericulata) - U/O - BG
[edit]Order Podicipediformes (Grebes)
Family Podicepidae
Little Grebe (Tachybaptus ruficollis) - U/RB - LH, KR, NT, Singapore Quarry, TP
[edit]Order Procellariiformes (Tubenoses)
Family Hydrobatidae (Storm-petrels)
Swinhoe's Storm-petrel (Oceanodroma monorhis) - U/PM - PU, SS
Wilson's Storm-petrel (Oceanites oceanicus) - VR/V - SS
Family Procellariidae (Shearwaters)
Wedge-tailed Shearwater (Puffinus pacificus) - VR/V - CR, SS
Short-tailed Shearwater (Puffinus tenuirostris) - VR/V - SS, Woodlands
Streaked Shearwater (Calonectris leucomelas) - VR/V - Singapore Harbour
[edit]Order Pelecaniformes (Pelicans and relatives)
Family Pelecanidae (Pelicans)
Dalmatian Pelican (Pelecanus crispus) - VR/F - JL
Australian Pelican (Pelecanus conspicillatus) - VR/F - Admiralty Park, Pioneer Circle, JL
Family Sulidae (Gannets and boobies)
Brown Booby (Sula leucogaster) - VR/V
Family Fregatidae (Frigatebirds)
Christmas Island Frigatebird (Fregata andrewsi) - VR/V - PU, SB
Lesser Frigatebird (Fregata ariel) - VR/V
Family Phalacrocoracidae (Cormorants and shags)
Great Cormorant (Phalacrocorax carbo) - U/F - CR, KD, MM, TG
Family Anhingidae (Darters)
Oriental Darter (Anhinga melanogaster) - VR/F - NT
[edit]Order Ciconiiformes (Herons and relatives)
Family Ciconiidae (Storks)
Milky Stork (Mycteria cinerea) - U/F - Admiralty Park, JL, SB
Painted Stork (Mycteria leucocephala) - U/F - Admiralty Park, JL, SB
Lesser Adjutant (Leptoptilos javanicus) - Ex/RB, VR/Es+V - SB, SE, SG
Family Ardeidae (Herons, egrets and bitterns)
Grey Heron (Ardea cinerea) - C/RB - Waterbodies
Purple Heron (Ardea purpurea) - C/RB - Grassfields, Waterbodies
Great-billed Heron (Ardea sumatrana) - R/RB - JL, KR, PU, SB, Southern Islands, TG
Great Egret (Ardea alba) - C/WV - Waterbodies
Intermediate Egret (Mesophoyx intermedia) - C/WV - Grassfields, Waterbodies
Little Egret (Egretta garzetta) - VC/RWV - Waterbodies
Chinese Egret (Egretta eulophotes) - R/WV - CR, LH, PR, PU, SB, SE, SL
Pacific Reef Egret (Egretta sacra) - U/R - CR, PH, PU, SE, Siglap Canal, Sungei Punggol
Cattle Egret (Bubulcus ibis) - VC/F+WV - Grassfields
Chinese Pond Heron (Ardeola bacchus) - C/WV - CR, JL, LH, MS
Javan Pond Heron (Ardeola speciosa) - R/WV - LH, SB, SE
Striated Heron (Butorides striatus) - VC/RBWV - Waterbodies
Black-crowned Night Heron (Nycticorax nycticorax) - C/RB - Waterbodies
Malayan Night Heron (Gorsachius melanolophus) - R/WVPM - BW, CF, JL, BG
Cinnamon Bittern (Ixobrychus cinnamomeus) - U/RBWV - BW, JL, LH, NT, SB, TG
Schrenck's Bittern (Ixobrychus eurhythmus) - R/WV - CR, JL, LH, Sengkang, SB, TG
Black Bittern (Ixobrychus flavicollis) - U/WVPM - BG, CF, Hindhede Quarry, JL, LH, SB
Yellow Bittern (Ixobrychus sinensis) - C/WV - Reedbeds
Great Bittern (Botaurus stellaris) - VR/V
Family Threskiornithidae (Ibises and Spoonbills)
Glossy Ibis (Plegadis falcinellus) - VR/V - SB, SE
Black-headed Ibis (Threskiornis melanocephalus) - VR/F - PY, SB
[edit]Order Falconiformes (Birds of prey)
Family Pandionidae (Osprey)
Osprey (Pandion haliaetus) - C/NBV - Islandwide near water
Family Accipitridae (Eagles, hawks and relatives)
Black Baza (Aviceda leuphotes) - C/WVPM - Islandwide
Jerdon's Baza (Aviceda jerdoni) - R/WVPM - BT, BW, CF, CR, JL, JH, MS, PR, PY, Maju Camp, LH
Oriental Honey Buzzard (Pernis ptilorhyncus) - C/WVPM, R/NBV - WVPM: Islandwide. NBV: Toa Payoh, PY
Bat Hawk (Macheiramphus alcinus) - VR/NBV - CF, PU
Black-winged Kite (Elanus caeruleus) - C/RB - Grasslands
Black Kite (Milvus migrans) - U/WV - BB, CR, MS, PG, PP, SB, SL
Brahminy Kite (Haliastur indus) - C/RB - Islandwide
Japanese Sparrowhawk (Accipiter gularis) - C/WVPM - Islandwide
Chinese Sparrowhawk (Accipiter soloensis) - U/WVPM - BG, CF, JL, NT, PP, PU, SB, SL, WC
Crested Goshawk (Accipiter trivirgatus) - R/RB+NBV - Ang Mo Kio, BG, BT, CF, CR, JL, KD, KR, MF, NT, PG, PU
Besra (Accipiter virgatus) - VR/PM
Grey-faced Buzzard (Butastur indicus) - U/WV - BB, CR, TG
Common Buzzard (Buteo buteo) - U/WV - BW, CR, KR, Payar Lebar, ST
Blyth's Hawk Eagle (Spizaetus alboniger) - VR/NBV - KR, SG
Changeable Hawk Eagle (Spizaetus cirrhatus) - C/RB - Forested areas
Rufous-bellied Eagle (Hieraaetus kienerii) - R/WVPM - BB, BG, CF, LH, SB
Booted Eagle (Hieraaetus pennatus) - R/WV - BW, Bukit Panjang, CF, CR, KR, PG, PP, PY
Greater Spotted Eagle (Aquila clanga) - VR/WV - BG, CR, LH, Murai, PY, SB
Imperial Eagle (Aquila heliaca) - VR/V
Steppe Eagle (Aquila nipalensis) - VR/V - CR
White-bellied Sea Eagle (Haliaeetus leucogaster) - C/RB - Islandwide near water
Grey-headed Fish Eagle (Ichthyophaga ichthyaetus) - U/RB - BB, BG, CF, Changi Village, JL, NT, PY, SB, SL
Himalayan Griffon Vulture (Gyps himalayensis) - VR/V - Ang Mo Kio, BT, CR, JS, Orchard Road, SB, SG
Short-toed Snake Eagle (Circaetus gallicus) - VR/PM - JL, NT, SB, TG
Crested Serpent Eagle (Spilornis cheela) - R/R - BG, BT, CF, JL, SB, SL, Sembawang
Northern Harrier (Circus cyaneus) - VR/WV - CR
Pied Harrier (Circus melanoleucos) - R/WV - CR, TG
Eastern Marsh Harrier (Circus spilonotus) - U/WV - CR, PY, SB, SE, TG
Western Marsh Harrier (Circus aeruginosus) - VR/WV - CR
Family Falconidae (Falcons and relatives)
Black-thighed Falconet (Microhierax fringillarius) - VR/R - BB, JL
Common Kestrel (Falco tinnunculus) - R/WV - CR, KD
Lesser Kestrel (Falco naumanni) - VR/WV - CR
Amur Falcon (Falco amurensis) - VR/V - CR
Oriental Hobby (Falco severus) - VR/WV - PU
Eurasian Hobby (Falco subbuteo) - VR/WV - CR, SB
Peregrine Falcon (Falco peregrinus) - U/WV - BB, CF, CR, City, JL, KB, KD, KR, NT, PP, PU, Punggol Park, SB, SJ, Woodlands
[edit]Order Turniciformes (Buttonquails)
Family Turnicidae (Buttonquails)
Barred Buttonquail (Turnix suscitator) - C/RB - CR, LH, NT, PG, PP, PU, TG, TP
[edit]Order Gruiformes (Cranes and relatives)
Family Heliornithidae (Finfoots)
Masked Finfoot (Heliopais personata) - VR/V - NT, SB (1999), Upper Seletar
Family Gruidae (Cranes)
East African Crowned Crane (Balearica regulorum gibbericeps) - VR/F - SL
Family Rallidae (Rails and relatives)
White-breasted Waterhen (Amaurornis phoenicurus) - VC/RBWV - Islandwide
Common Coot (Fulica atra) - VR/V - PY
Watercock (Gallicrex cinerea) - U/WV - CR, Jurong East, KB, KM, LH, MS, PY, SB, TG
Common Moorhen (Gallinula chloropus) - U/RB - LH, KM, MS, PY, SE, WC
Slaty-breasted Rail (Gallirallus striatus) - C/RB - Tall grass areas
Purple Swamphen (Porphyrio porphyrio) - R/RB - KM, LH, PY, SB, TP
White-browed Crake (Porzana cinerea) - U/RB - LH, KM, PG, SB
Ruddy-breasted Crake (Porzana fusca) - U/RBWV - CR, LH, KM, MS, PG, PP, SL, TG, TP
Baillon's Crake (Porzana pusilla) - R/WVPM - BB, LH, TP, TG
Slaty-legged Crake (Rallina eurizonoides) - VR/WVPM - CF, Admiralty Park
Red-legged Crake (Rallina fasciata) - U/RBWV - BB, BC, BG, BT, CF, PU, SB
[edit]Order Charadriiformes (Shorebirds)
Family Charadriidae (Plovers and lapwings)
Kentish Plover (Charadrius alexandrinus) - U/WVPM - CR, KB, Marina Barrage
Swinhoe's Plover (Charadrius dealbatus) - R/WV - CR
Little Ringed Plover (Charadrius dubius) - C/WVPM - Open areas, rivers, coasts
Common Ringed Plover (Charadrius hiaticula) - VR/PM - CR, SB
Greater Sand Plover (Charadrius leschenaultii) - U/WVPM - CR, SB
Lesser Sand Plover (Charadrius mongolus) - C/WVPM - Rivers, coasts, mudflats
Malaysian Plover (Charadrius peronii) - R/RB - CR, LH, PS
Oriental Plover (Charadrius veredus) - VR/PM - CR
Pacific Golden Plover (Pluvialis fulva) - VC/WVPM - Rivers, coasts, mudflats, open areas
Grey Plover (Pluvialis squatarola) - U/WVPM - CR, PU, SB
Grey-headed Lapwing (Vanellus cinereus) - VR/V - SB
Red-wattled Lapwing (Vanellus indicus) - U/RB - BB, CR, Kranji grassland, NT, PG, PP, PT, PU, SB, Sarimbun, TG
Family Scolopacidae (Sandpipers and relatives)
Eurasian Woodcock (Scolopax rusticola) - VR/WV
Common Snipe (Gallinago gallinago) - C/WV - CR, JL, KB, LH, PG, PY, SB, TG, Venus Drive Carpark
Swinhoe's Snipe (Gallinago megala) - R/WV - CR, PG, NT
Pintail Snipe (Gallinago stenura) - C/WV - CR, Kranji grassland, LH, PG, PU, SB, TG
Asian Dowitcher (Limnodromus semipalmatus) - U/WVPM - CR, LH, PU, SB
Bar-tailed Godwit (Limosa lapponica) - U/WVPM - CR, MM, PU, SB
Black-tailed Godwit (Limosa limosa) - U/WVPM - CR, MM, SB
Eurasian Curlew (Numenius arquata) - U/WVPM - CR, PU, SB
Far Eastern Curlew (Numenius madagascariensis) - R/PM - CR, SB
Little Curlew (Numenius minutus) - VR/V
Whimbrel (Numenius phaeopus) - C/WVPM - Rivers, coasts, mudflats
Great Knot (Calidris tenuirostris) - U/PM - CR, SB
Red Knot (Calidris canutus) - R/WV - SB
Sanderling (Calidris alba) - U/WV - CR
Dunlin (Calidris alpina) - VR/PM - CR
Rufous-necked Stint (Calidris ruficollis) - C/WVPM - CR, MM, PU, SB
Long-toed Stint (Calidris subminuta) - R/WVPM - CR
Temminck's Stint (Calidris temminckii) - VR/PM
Sharp-tailed Sandpiper (Calidris acuminata) - R/V - CR
Curlew Sandpiper (Calidris ferruginea) - C/WVPM - CR, MM, SB
Pectoral Sandpiper (Calidris melanotos) - R/V - CR, Tanah Merah marsh (1999)
Spoon-billed Sandpiper (Eurynorhynchus pygmeus) - VR/WV - CR, LH, Jurong, WC
Broad-billed Sandpiper (Limicola falcinellus) - U/WVPM - CR, MM, SB
Terek Sandpiper (Tringa cinerea) - U/WVPM - CR, MM, SB
Wood Sandpiper (Tringa glareola) - C/WVPM - CR, LH, PG, SB, TG
Common Sandpiper (Tringa hypoleucos) - VC/WVPM - Waterbodies
Green Sandpiper (Tringa ochropus) - VR/WV
Marsh Sandpiper (Tringa stagnatilis) - C/WVPM - Rivers, coasts, mudflats
Common Redshank (Tringa totanus) - C/WVPM - Rivers, coasts, mudflats
Spotted Redshank (Tringa erythropus) - VR/WV - SB
Common Greenshank (Tringa nebularia) - C/WVPM - Rivers, coasts, mudflats
Nordmann's Greenshank (Tringa guttifer) - VR/WV - CR, LH, Jurong, SB, WC
Grey-tailed Tattler (Tringa brevipes) - R/WVPM - CR, SB
Ruddy Turnstone (Arenaria interpres) - U/WV - CR, LH, MM, SB
Ruff (Philomachus pugnax) - VR/WV - CR, SB
Red-necked Phalarope (Phalaropus lobatus) - VR/WV - SS
Family Rostratulidae (Painted snipes)
Greater Painted-snipe (Rostratula benghalensis) - R/RB - PG, KM, LH, TG
Family Jacanidae (Jacanas)
Pheasant-tailed Jacana (Hydrophasianus chirurgus) - VR/WV - KM, JL, SB
Family Burhinidae (Thickknees)
Beach Stone-curlew (Esacus giganteus) - VR/R - Southern Islands
Family Recurvirostridae (Stilts and avocets)
Black-winged Stilt (Himantopus himantopus) - R/WVPM - CR, SB
Family Glareolidae (Pratincoles and Coursers)
Small Pratincole (Glareola lactea) - VR/PM
Oriental Pratincole (Glareola maldivarum) - U/PM - CF, CR, KM, PG, PS, SE, TG
Family Stercorariidae (Skuas and jaegers)
Long-tailed Jaeger (Stercorarius longicaudus) - VR/V - SS
Parasitic Jaeger (Stercorarius parasiticus) - VR/V - SS
Pomarine Jaeger (Stercorarius pomarinus) - VR/V - SS
Family Laridae (Gulls and terns)
Brown-headed Gull (Larus brunnicephalus) - VR/WV - CR
Black-headed Gull (Larus ridibundus) - R/WV - MM, PU
White-winged Tern (Chlidonias hybridus) - C/WVPM - Rivers, coasts, SS
Whiskered Tern (Chlidonias leucopterus) - R/WVPM - JL
Little Tern (Sterna albifrons) - C/RBWV - Rivers, coasts, SS
Aleutian Tern (Sterna aleutica) - VR/V - CR, SS
Bridled Tern (Sterna anaethetus) - U/RB - CR, Pedra Blanca, SS
Lesser Crested Tern (Sterna bengalensis) - C/WV - CR, JS, MM, Pedra Blanca, PU, SS
Great Crested Tern (Sterna bergii) - C/WV - CR, JS, MM, Pedra Blanca, PU, SS
Caspian Tern (Sterna caspia) - R/WV - MM
Roseate Tern (Sterna dougallii) - VR/V
Common Tern (Sterna hirundo) - U/WV - CR, MM, SS
Gull-billed Tern (Sterna nilotica) - R/WVPM - CR, MM, PU
Black-naped Tern (Sterna sumatrana) - U/RB - CR, JS, Pedra Blanca, PU, PT, SS
[edit]Order Columbiformes (Pigeons)
Family Columbidae (Pigeons)
Zebra Dove (Geopelia striata) - C/RB - Urban
Spotted Dove (Streptopelia chinensis) - VC/RB - Urban
Red Collared Dove (Streptopelia tranquebarica) - U/IRB - CR, LH, NT, PR, PU
Emerald Dove (Chalcophaps indica) - U/RB - BB, BT, CF, PU, SB
Jambu Fruit Dove (Ptilinopus jambu) - U/NBV - BB, BG, CF, CR, KR, JL, MF, PP
Thick-billed Green Pigeon (Treron curvirostra) - U/RB - BC, BT, CF, MS, SJ, ST
Cinnamon-headed Green Pigeon (Treron fulvicollis) - VR/NBV - PU, SB
Little Green Pigeon (Treron olax) - VR/R - BT, CF
Pink-necked Green Pigeon (Treron vernans) - C/RB - Wooded areas
Rock Pigeon (Columba livia) - VC/IRB - Urban areas
Pied Imperial Pigeon (Ducula bicolor) - R/NBV+F - BB, JL, Labrador Park, PY, Southern Islands
Green Imperial Pigeon (Ducula aenea) - Ex/RB, VR/V - BB, PU, PT
[edit]Order Psittaciformes (Parrots)
Family Cacatuidae (Cockatoos)
Tanimbar Cockatoo (Cacatua goffiniana)[1] - C/EsRB - BB, BG, Changi Village, MF, SL, ST
Yellow-crested Cockatoo (Cacatua sulphurea) - U/EsRB - BG, Changi Village, Clementi, Dover Road, KR, MF, SJ, ST, TB
Sulphur-crested Cockatoo (Cacatua galerita) - R/Es - MF, ST
Umbrella Cockatoo (Cacatua alba) - R/Es - ST
Salmon-crested Cockatoo (Cacatua moluccensis) - R/Es - Sembawang
Palm Cockatoo (Probosciger aterrimus) - R/Es - CF
Family Psittacidae (Parrots)
African Grey Parrot (Psittacus erithacus) - R/Es - Dempsey Road
Eclectus Parrot (Eclectus roratus) - VR/Es - Pasir Panjang
Blue-rumped Parrot (Psittinus cyanurus) - R/R - CF
Blue-crowned Hanging Parrot (Loriculus galgulus) - U/RB - BB, BG, BT, CF, KR, MF
Vernal Hanging Parrot (Loriculus vernalis) - R/Es - BG
Red-breasted Parakeet (Psittacula alexandri) - C/EsRB - Tall tree areas
Rose-ringed Parakeet (Psittacula krameri) - U/EsRB - BG, KB, PU, PY, SG, SL, Sembawang
Long-tailed Parakeet (Psittacula longicauda) - C/RB - Tall tree areas
Blossom-headed Parakeet (Psittacula roseata) - R/Es - PY
Monk Parakeet (Myiopsitta monachus) - R/Es - CR
Rainbow Lorikeet (Trichoglossus haematodus) - U/EsRB - BG, JL
Red Lory (Eos bornea) - R/Es - BG
Dusky Lory (Pseudeos fuscata) - R/Es - BG
Blue-eared Lory (Eos semilarvata) - R/Es - BG
Peach-faced Lovebird (Agapornis roseicollis) - VR/Es - CF, Pasir Panjang
[edit]Order Cuculiformes (Cuckoos and relatives)
Family Cuculidae (Cuckoos)
Plaintive Cuckoo (Cacomantis merulinus) - U/RB - BB, BT, BW, CF, CR, JL, LH, NT, PG, PU, PY, SB, TP, TG
Rusty-breasted Cuckoo (Cacomantis sepulcralis) - U/RB - BG, BT, BW, CF, KB, LH, NT, PY, PT, PU, SB, ST
Banded Bay Cuckoo (Cacomantis sonnerati) - U/RB - BB, BT, CF, KM, LH, NT, PU, SL
Horsfield's Bronze Cuckoo (Chrysococcyx basalis) - VR/WV - Changi Beach, Kranji, ME, MS, PT, ST, TG
Little Bronze Cuckoo (Chrysococcyx minutillus) - C/RB - Wooded areas
Violet Cuckoo (Chrysococcyx xanthorhynchus) - U/RBWV - BB, BT, CF, PR, PU, PY, SG, SL
Chestnut-winged Cuckoo (Clamator coromandus) - U/WVPM - BG, BW, CF, CR, JL, KB, LH, Murai, PY, SB, SG
Hodgson's Hawk Cuckoo (Cuculus nisicolor) - U/WVPM - BT, BW, CF, CR, JL, Kusu Island, PP, PR, PY
Malaysian Hawk Cuckoo (Cuculus fugax) - R/NBV - SB
Indian Cuckoo (Cuculus micropterus) - C/WVPM - BG, BT, BW, CF, CR, JL, MF, PY, SB
Oriental Cuckoo (Cuculus saturatus) - R/PM - BW, Coney Island, JL
Large Hawk Cuckoo (Cuculus sparverioides) - R/WVPM - BW, CF, CR, KB, PP, PR
Asian Koel (Eudynamys scolopacea) - VC/RB - Islandwide (including offshore islands)
Asian Drongo Cuckoo (Surniculus lugubris) - U/RBWV - BB, BT, BW, CF, JL, NT, PR, PY, SB
Chestnut-bellied Malkoha (Phaenicophaeus sumatranus) - R/RB - BT, CF, PY, TB
Black-bellied Malkoha (Phaenicophaeus diardi) - Ex/RB
Raffles' Malkoha (Phaenicophaeus chlorophaeus) - Ex/RB
Red-billed Malkoha (Phaenicophaeus javanicus) - Ex/RB
Lesser Coucal (Centropus bengalensis) - C/RB - Grasslands
Greater Coucal (Centropus sinensis) - U/RB - Wooded areas
[edit]Order Strigiformes (Owls)
Family Tytonidae (Barn and Bay owls)
Barn Owl (Tyto alba) - U/RB - Under bridges, CR, JL, KD, ST, Toa Payoh, Marina Barrage
Bay Owl (Phodilus badius) - Ex/RB
Family Strigidae (Typical owls)
Barred Eagle Owl (Bubo sumatranus) - Ex/RB, VR/NBV - CF, PU
Short-eared Owl (Asio flammeus) - VR/WVPM - CR
Buffy Fish Owl (Ketupa ketupu) - R/RB - CF, PY, PU, SB, ST
Brown Hawk Owl (Ninox scutulata) - C/RBWV - BT, CF, PU, ST, Venus Drive
Sunda Scops Owl (Otus lempiji) - C/RB - Alexandra Hill, BB, BC, BT, CF, PU, SB, ST
Oriental Scops Owl (Otus sunia) - VR/WVPM - BT, CF, FC, KR, MF, SB, Sembawang
Brown Wood Owl (Strix leptogrammica) - R/RB - CF, PU
Spotted Wood Owl (Strix seloputo) - U/RB - BG, Chinatown, City, Dover Road, JL, PR, PU, PY, SJ, ST, TB, Toa Payoh
[edit]Order Caprimulgiformes (Nightjars and relatives)
Family Podargidae (Frogmouths)
Gould's Frogmouth (Batrachostomus stellatus) - Ex/RB
Family Caprimulgidae (Nightjars)
Savanna Nightjar (Caprimulgus affinis) - C/RB - Grasslands
Grey Nightjar (Caprimulgus indicus) - R/WVPM - BW, CF, CR, JL
Large-tailed Nightjar (Caprimulgus macrurus) - C/RB - Wooded areas
Malaysian Eared Nightjar (Eurostopodus temminckii) - R/R - CF
[edit]Order Apodiformes (Swifts)
Family Apodidae (True swifts)
House Swift (Apus nipalensis) - C/RB - Islandwide including urban areas, forests
Fork-tailed Swift (Apus pacificus) - U/WVPM - BT, CF, PU
Asian Palm Swift (Cypsiurus balasiensis) - U/RB - BT, CF, KR, PU, PY, Sembawang
Glossy Swiftlet (Collocalia esculenta) - R/R - BB, BT, CF
Germain's Swiftlet (Collocalia germani) - C/RB - Islandwide
Black-nest Swiftlet (Collocalia maxima) - C/RB - Islandwide
Himalayan Swiftlet (Collocalia brevirostris) - U/WVPM
Silver-backed Needletail (Hirundapus cochinchinensis) - U/WVPM - BT, CF
Brown-backed Needletail (Hirundapus giganteus) - U/WVPM - BT, CF
White-throated Needletail (Hirundapus caudacutus) - VR/PM - BT
Silver-rumped Spinetail (Rhaphidura leucopygialis) - VR/NBV - CF, PY
Family Hemiprocnidae (Treeswifts)
Whiskered Treeswift (Hemiprocne comata) - VR/NBV - BT, CF
Grey-rumped Treeswift (Hemiprocne longipennis) - C/RB - BB, BC, BG, CF, KR, TB
[edit]Order Coraciiformes (Kingfishers and relatives)
Family Alcedinidae (Kingfishers)
Common Kingfisher (Alcedo atthis) - C/WV - Water edges
Blue-eared Kingfisher (Alcedo meninting) - R/RB - CF, PU, PY, SB, BB
Black-backed Kingfisher (Ceyx erithacus) - Ex/RB, R/WV - BT, CF, SB, Tuas
Banded Kingfisher (Lacedo pulchella) - Ex/RB
Rufous-collared Kingfisher (Actenoides concretus) - Ex/RB
Ruddy Kingfisher (Halcyon coromanda) - R/RB+WV - RB: PT. WV: BG, CF, City, FC, JL, PU, SB, Venus Drive
Black-capped Kingfisher (Halcyon pileata) - U/WV - Water edges
White-throated Kingfisher (Halcyon smyrnensis) - VC/RB - Water edges
Stork-billed Kingfisher (Pelargopsis capensis) - U/RB - Water edges
Collared Kingfisher (Todirhamphus chloris) - VC/RB - Water edges
Family Meropidae (Bee-eaters)
Blue-tailed Bee-eater (Merops philippinus) - C/WV - Islandwide (including offshore islands)
Blue-throated Bee-eater (Merops viridis) - C/MB - Islandwide (including offshore islands)
Family Phoeniculidae (Wood-hoopoes)
Green Wood Hoopoe (Phoeniculus purpureus) - VR/F - Pioneer Circus
Family Coraciidae (Rollers)
Dollarbird (Eurystomus orientalis) - C/RBWV - Wooded areas
Family Bucerotidae (Hornbills)
Oriental Pied Hornbill (Anthracoceros albirostris) - U/RB - BW, CF, Changi Beach, PU, SJ
Rhinoceros Hornbill (Buceros bicornis) - Ex/RB, VR/Es - BT
Great Hornbill (Buceros rhinoceros) - VR/Es - BT, MF, ST
Helmeted Hornbill (Rhinoplax vigil) - Ex/RB
White-crowned Hornbill (Aceros comatus) - VR/Es
Bushy-crested Hornbill (Anorrhinus galeritus) - VR/Es - Ulu Pandan
Black Hornbill (Anthracoceros malayanus) - VR/Es
Narcondam Hornbill (Aceros narcondami) - VR/Es - BW
Southern Ground Hornbill (Bucorvus leadbeateri) - VR/Es
[edit]Order Trogoniformes (Trogons)
Family Trogonidae (Trogons)
Red-naped Trogon (Harpactes kasumba) - Ex/RB
Diard's Trogon (Harpactes diardii) - Ex/RB
[edit]Order Piciformes (Woodpeckers and relatives)
Family Picidae (Woodpeckers)
Sunda Pygmy Woodpecker (Dendrocopus moluccensis) - VC/RB - Parks
Common Goldenback (Dinopium javanense) - C/RB - Wooded areas
Olive-backed Woodpecker (Dinopium rafflesii) - Ex/RB
Buff-rumped Woodpecker (Meiglyptes tristis) - Ex/RB
Buff-necked Woodpecker (Meiglyptes tukki) - Ex/RB
Grey-and-buff Woodpecker (Hemicircus concretus) - Ex/RB
Banded Woodpecker (Picus miniaceus) - C/RB - Forests
Crimson-winged Woodpecker (Picus puniceus) - Ex/RB, VR/NBV - BT
Checker-throated Woodpecker (Picus mentalis) - Ex/RB
Laced Woodpecker (Picus vittatus) - C/RB - Forests
Great Slaty Woodpecker (Mulleripicus pulverulentus) - Ex/RB, VR/NBV
White-bellied Woodpecker (Dryocopus javensis) - VR/R - CF
Rufous Woodpecker (Celeus brachyurus) - U/RB - Wooded areas
Greater Flameback (Chrysocolaptes lucidus) - Ex/RB
Orange-backed Woodpecker (Reinwardtipicus validus) - Ex/RB
Maroon Woodpecker (Blythipicus rubiginosus) - Ex/RB
Family Megalaimidae (Barbets)
Coppersmith Barbet (Megalaima haemacephala) - C/RB - Wooded areas
Lineated Barbet (Megalaima lineata) - U/IRB - BB, BT, JL, KR, PY
Red-crowned Barbet (Megalaima rafflesii) - U/RB - BB, BT, CF, PY
Blue-eared Barbet (Megalaima australis) - Ex/RB
Red-throated Barbet (Megalaima mystacophanos) - Ex/RB
Yellow-crowned Barbet (Megalaima henricii) - Ex/RB
Brown Barbet (Caloramphus fuliginosus) - Ex/RB
Red-and-yellow Barbet (Trachyphonus erythrocephalus) - VR/Es
[edit]Order Passeriformes (Perching birds)
[edit]Family Pittidae (Pittas)
Mangrove Pitta (Pitta megarhyncha) - R/RB - PU, PT, SB, Jurong
Blue-winged Pitta (Pitta moluccensis) - U/WVPM - BB, BG, BT, CF, Jurong Island, Kranji Nature Trail, PY, Sembawang, WC
Hooded Pitta (Pitta sordida) - U/WVPM - BG, BT, BW, CF, JL, WC
Garnet Pitta (Pitta granatina) - Ex/RB
[edit]Family Eurylaimidae (Broadbills)
Black-and-red Broadbill (Cymbirhynchus macrorhynchos) - Ex/RB, VR/NBV - PU
Black-and-yellow Broadbill (Eurylaimus ochromalus) - Ex/RB
Banded Broadbill (Eurylaimus javanicus) - Ex/RB
Green Broadbill (Calyptomena viridis) - Ex/RB
Dusky Broadbill (Corydon sumatranus) - Ex/RB
[edit]Family Acanthizidae (Gerygones and relatives)
Golden-bellied Gerygone (Gerygone sulphurea) - C/RB - Wooded areas
[edit]Family Pachycephalidae (Whistlers and relatives)
Mangrove Whistler (Pachycephala grisola) - U/RB - LH, PH, PS, PU, SB
[edit]Family Dicruridae (Monarchs, paradise flycatchers, drongos and relatives)
Black-naped Monarch (Hypothymis azurea) - VR/R - PU
Japanese Paradise Flycatcher (Terpsiphone atrocaudata) - VR/PM - BW, Bishan, CF, PH
Asian Paradise Flycatcher (Terpsiphone paradisi) - Ex/RB, C/WVPM - Forested areas
Pied Fantail (Rhipidura javanica) - C/RB - Wooded areas
Crow-billed Drongo (Dicrurus annectans) - U/WVPM - BG, BW, CF, MF, NT, PU, SB, SJ
Ashy Drongo (Dicrurus leucophaeus) - R/WV - BB, CF, PS
Black Drongo (Dicrurus macrocercus) - U/WVPM - CR, PG, PY, SB, SL, TG
Greater Racket-tailed Drongo (Dicrurus paradiseus) - C/RB - Forested areas
Bronzed Drongo (Dicrurus aeneus) - Ex/RB
[edit]Family Prionopidae (Helmetshrikes and relatives)
Large Woodshrike (Tephrodornis gularis) - Ex/RB
Maroon-breasted Philentoma (Philentoma velatum) - Ex/RB
Rufous-winged Philentoma (Philentoma pyrhopterum) - Ex/RB
[edit]Family Campephagidae (Cuckoo-shrikes, trillers, minivets and relatives)
Lesser Cuckoo-shrike (Coracina fimbriata) - VR/R - BT
Bar-bellied Cuckoo-shrike (Coracina striata) - Ex/RB
Pied Triller (Lalage nigra) - C/RB - Wooded areas
Ashy Minivet (Pericrocotus divaricatus) - C/WVPM - Wooded areas
Scarlet Minivet (Pericrocotus flammeus) - VR/R - BT
Fiery Minivet (Pericrocotus cinnamomeus) - Ex/RB
[edit]Family Oriolidae (Old World orioles)
Black-naped Oriole (Oriolus chinensis) - VC/RB - Parks, wooded areas
Dark-throated Oriole (Oriolus xanthonotus) - Ex/RB
[edit]Family Corvidae (Crows and relatives)
House Crow (Corvus splendens) - VC/IRB - Urban
Large-billed Crow (Corvus macrorhynchos) - C/RB - Forests
Black Magpie (Platysmurus leucopterus) - Ex/RB
Green Magpie (Cissa chinensis) - VR/Es - BB
Red-billed Blue Magpie (Urocissa erythrorhyncha) - VR/Es - MF, SB, KR
[edit]Family Irenidae (Fairy bluebirds)
Asian Fairy Bluebird (Irena puella) - C/RB - BT, CF
[edit]Family Chloropseidae (Leafbirds)
Blue-winged Leafbird (Chloropsis cochinchinensis) - C/RB - BT, CF
Greater Green Leafbird (Chloropsis sonnerati) - U/RB - BT, CF
Lesser Green Leafbird (Chloropsis cyanopogon) - U/RB - BT, CF
[edit]Family Laniidae (Shrikes)
Brown Shrike (Lanius cristatus) - C/WVPM - Grasslands, secondary growth
Long-tailed Shrike (Lanius schach) - C/RB - Grasslands
Tiger Shrike (Lanius tigrinus) - C/WVPM - Secondary forests
[edit]Family Aegithinidae (Ioras)
Common Iora (Aegithina tiphia) - C/RB - Wooded areas
Green Iora (Aegithina viridissima) - Ex/RB
[edit]Family Turdidae (Thrushes)
Eyebrowed Thrush (Turdus obscurus) - R/WVPM - BT, BW, CF, PU, TB
Orange-headed Thrush (Zoothera citrina) - R/WV - BG, BT, BW, CF, WC
Siberian Thrush (Zoothera sibirica) - VR/PM - BT, CF, KR, JL
White-throated Rock Thrush (Monticola gularis) - VR/WVPM - BT
Blue Rock Thrush (Monticola solitarius) - VR/PM - BT, Tanjong Pagar
[edit]Family Muscicapidae (Old World flycatchers)
Brown-chested Jungle-flycatcher (Rhinomyias brunneatus) - R/WVPM - BB, BW, CF, SB
Asian Brown Flycatcher (Muscicapa dauurica) - C/WVPM - Wooded areas
Dark-sided Flycatcher (Muscicapa sibirica) - U/WVPM - BB, BG, BW, CF, NT, BG
Ferruginous Flycatcher (Muscicapa ferruginea) - R/WVPM - BG, CF, JL
Grey-streaked Flycatcher (Muscicapa griseisticta) - VR/PM
Brown-streaked Flycatcher (Muscicapa williamsoni) - R/WVPM - BB, BW, CF, JL, MF
Mugimaki Flycatcher (Ficedula mugimaki) - U/PM - BB, BT, BW, CF, KR, MF, JL
Chinese Flycatcher (Ficedula elisae) - R/WVPM - Bishan Park, CF, KB, KR, MS
Narcissus Flycatcher (Ficedula narcissina) - VR/V - Sengkang
Yellow-rumped Flycatcher (Ficedula zanthopygia) - C/PM - BW
Blue-and-white Flycatcher (Cyanoptila cyanomelana) - R/PM - BB, BG, BT, BW, CF, JL, KR
Chinese Blue Flycatcher (Cyornis glaucicomans) - VR/PM - SB
Mangrove Blue Flycatcher (Cyornis rufigastra) - VR/RB - PT, PU, SB
Siberian Blue Robin (Luscinia cyane) - U/WVPM - BT, CF, PU, SB
Oriental Magpie Robin (Copsychus saularis) - U/RB - Secondary growths
White-rumped Shama (Copsychus malabaricus) - R/RB - BB, BT, CF, MF, PU, SB
Siberian Stonechat (Saxicola maura) - R/WVPM - CR, Kranji grassland, MS, PG, PY, TG
[edit]Family Sturnidae (Starlings, mynas, oxpeckers)
Asian Glossy Starling (Aplonis panayensis) - VC/RB - Islandwide
Purple-backed Starling (Sturnus sturninus) - VC/WVPM - Wooded areas
Chestnut-cheeked Starling (Sturnus philippensis) - VR/PM
White-shouldered Starling (Sturnus sinensis) - U/WVPM - CR, KR, LH, PG
Black-winged Starling (Sturnus melanopterus) - VR/FRB - Jurong, SJ (1983)
Rosy Starling (Sturnus roseus) - VR/WV - CR, Jurong Island, TG (1990s)
Black-collared Starling (Sturnus nigricollis) - VR/Es - CR, KD, SB
Brahminy Starling (Sturnus pagodarum) - VR/Es - MS
Asian Pied Starling (Sturnus contra) - VR/Es - CR, NT
Red-winged Starling (Onychognathus morio) - R/Es - JL
Crested Myna (Acridotheres cristatellus) - VR/IRB
Javan Myna (Acridotheres javanicus) - VC/IRB - Islandwide (including offshore islands)
Common Myna (Acridotheres tristis) - C/RB - Islandwide (including offshore islands)
Common Hill Myna (Gracula religiosa) - C/RB - BB, BG, BT, CF, MF, PU, PY, SL
[edit]Family Hirundinidae (Swallows)
Red-rumped Swallow (Hirundo daurica) - U/WVPM - BT, CF, CR, PG, PY, SL, TG
Barn Swallow (Hirundo rustica) - VC/WVPM - Islandwide (including offshore islands)
Pacific Swallow (Hirundo tahitica) - C/RB - Islandwide (including offshore islands)
Sand Martin (Riparia riparia) - U/WVPM - BT, CF, CR, KM, NT, SL
Asian House Martin (Delichon dasypus) - R/PM - BT, CR
[edit]Family Pycnonotidae (Bulbuls)
Black-headed Bulbul (Pycnonotus atriceps) - R/RB - CF, PU
Sooty-headed Bulbul (Pycnonotus aurigaster) - U/IRB - CR, LH, PG, PR, SE, TP
Red-eyed Bulbul (Pycnonotus brunneus) - R/RB - BB, BT, CF
Yellow-vented Bulbul (Pycnonotus goiavier) - VC/RB - Parks
Red-whiskered Bulbul (Pycnonotus jocosus) - U/IRB - CR, JL, LH, PU, PY
Black-crested Bulbul (Pycnonotus melanicterus) - R/IR - BT
Olive-winged Bulbul (Pycnonotus plumosus) - C/RB - BG, BT, CF, SB, PU
Cream-vented Bulbul (Pycnonotus simplex) - U/RB - BT, CF
Straw-headed Bulbul (Pycnonotus zeylanicus) - U/RB - Secondary forests
Orange-spotted Bulbul (Pycnonotus bimaculatus) - VR/Es - BG
Spectacled Bulbul (Pycnonotus erythropthalmos) - VR/NBV - BT (2006)
Grey-bellied Bulbul (Pycnonotus cyaniventris) - Ex/RB
Puff-backed Bulbul (Pycnonotus eutilotus) - Ex/RB
Black-and-white Bulbul (Pycnonotus melanoleucus) - Ex/RB
Yellow-bellied Bulbul (Alophoixus phaeocephalus) - Ex/RB
Ashy Bulbul (Hemixos flavala) - U/NBV - BB, BT, CF, KR, MS, PU, SB
Buff-vented Bulbul (Iole olivacea) - VR/RB - BT
Streaked Bulbul (Ixos malaccensis) - R/NBV - BB, BT, Changi Village, SB
[edit]Family Sylviidae (Old World warblers)
Pallas's Grasshopper Warbler (Locustella certhiola) - U/WVPM - Grasslands
Lanceolated Warbler (Locustella lanceolata) - R/WVPM - KM, PG
Black-browed Reed-warbler (Acrocephalus bistrigiceps) - U/WV - CR, KM, MS, NT, PG, SB, TG
Oriental Reed-warbler (Acrocephalus orientalis) - C/WV - Marshes, Wooded areas near water
Arctic Warbler (Phylloscopus borealis) - C/WVPM - Wooded areas
Eastern Crowned Warbler (Phylloscopus coronatus) - U/WV - BT, CF, SB
Dusky Warbler (Phylloscopus fuscatus) - VR/PM - CF
Yellow-browed Warbler (Phylloscopus inornatus) - R/WVPM - BB, BT, BW, CF, MF
Pale-legged Leaf Warbler (Phylloscopus tenellipes) - VR/WV - CF
Dark-necked Tailorbird (Orthotomus atrogularis) - C/RB - Forests
Rufous-tailed Tailorbird (Orthotomus sericeus) - U/RB - Forests
Common Tailorbird (Orthotomus sutorius) - C/RB - Scrubby areas
Ashy Tailorbird (Orthotomus ruficeps) - C/RB - Mangroves
Zitting Cisticola (Cisticola juncidis) - C/RB - Grasslands
Yellow-bellied Prinia (Prinia flaviventris) - C/RB - Grasslands
[edit]Family Timaliidae (Old World babblers)
Hwamei (Garrulax canorus) - R/IRB - KR, MF, ST
Black-throated Laughingthrush (Garrulax chinensis) - R/Es - MF
White-crested Laughingthrush (Garrulax leucolophus) - C/IRB - Wooded areas
Greater Necklaced Laughingthrush (Garrulax pectoralis) - VR/Es - MF
Black-capped Babbler (Pellorneum capistratum) - Ex/RB
White-chested Babbler (Trichastoma rostratum) - R/RB - CF, KM, SB
Abbott's Babbler (Malacocincla abbotti) - C/RB - BT, CF, PU, SB, ST
Short-tailed Babbler (Malacocincla malaccensis) - C/RB - CF
Moustached Babbler (Malacopteron magnirostre) - VR/RB - CF
Grey-breasted Babbler (Malacopteron albogulare) - Ex/RB
Chestnut-winged Babbler (Stachyris erythroptera) - U/RB - CF
Chestnut-rumped Babbler (Stachyris maculata) - Ex/RB
Black-throated Babbler (Stachyris nigricollis) - Ex/RB
Striped Tit-babbler (Macronous gularis) - C/RB - Forests
Fluffy-backed Tit-babbler (Macronous ptilosus) - Ex/RB
Large Wren-babbler (Napothera macrodactyla) - Ex/RB
Striped Wren-babbler (Kenopia striata) - Ex/RB
Red-billed Leiothrix (Leiothrix lutea) - VR/Es - Hougang
[edit]Family Zosteropidae (White-eyes)
Oriental White-eye (Zosterops palpebrosus) - U/rIRB - Wooded areas
Japanese White-eye (Zosterops japonicus) - R/I
Chestnut-flanked White-eye (Zosterops erythropleurus) - R/I
Mountain White-eye (Zosterops montanus) - R/I
Everett's White-eye (Zosterops everetti) - R/I
Mangrove White-eye (Zosterops chloris) - R/I
[edit]Family Dicaeidae (Flowerpeckers)
Thick-billed Flowerpecker (Dicaeum agile) - VR/NBV - BB, BT, CF
Yellow-vented Flowerpecker (Dicaeum chrysorrheum) - VR/R - BB, BT, CF
Scarlet-backed Flowerpecker (Dicaeum cruentatum) - C/RB - Parks
Orange-bellied Flowerpecker (Dicaeum trigonostigma) - C/RB - Forests
Plain Flowerpecker (Dicaeum concolor) - Ex/RB
Yellow-breasted Flowerpecker (Prionochilus maculatus) - Ex/RB
[edit]Family Nectariniidae (Sunbirds and spiderhunters)
Crimson Sunbird (Aethopyga siparaja) - C/RB - Parks, Forests
Brown-throated Sunbird (Anthreptes malacensis) - C/RB - Parks
Plain Sunbird (Anthreptes simplex) - R/R - CF
Olive-backed Sunbird (Cinnyris jugularis) - C/RB - Parks
Purple-naped Sunbird (Hypogramma hypogrammicum) - Ex/RB
Copper-throated Sunbird (Leptocoma calcostetha) - U/RB - BB, SB, PU
Purple-throated Sunbird (Leptocoma sperata) - C/RB - BB, BT, CF, PU
Yellow-eared Spiderhunter (Arachnothera chrysogenys) - R/R - BT, CF, PU
Thick-billed Spiderhunter (Arachnothera crassirostris) - R/R - BT, CF
Little Spiderhunter (Arachnothera longirostra) - U/RB - BT, CF, PU
Grey-breasted Spiderhunter (Arachnothera affinis) - Ex/RB
Spectacled Spiderhunter (Arachnothera chrysogenys) - Ex/RB
[edit]Family Motacillidae (Wagtails, pipits and relatives)
Forest Wagtail (Dendronanthus indicus) - U/WVPM - Forest edges, BW, CF, Venus Drive
White Wagtail (Motacilla alba) - R/WV - BC, BG, CR, PG
Grey Wagtail (Motacilla cinerea) - U/WVPM - Admiralty Park, BB, BT, CF, CR, PG, PU
Citrine Wagtail (Motacilla citreola) - VR/WV
Yellow Wagtail (Motacilla flava) - C/WV - CR, LH, KM, NT, PG
Red-throated Pipit (Anthus cervinus) - R/WV - CR
Olive-backed Pipit (Anthus hodgsoni) - VR/PM - BW
Paddyfield Pipit (Anthus rufulus) - C/RB - Urban
[edit]Family Ploceidae (Weavers and relatives)
Streaked Weaver (Ploceus manyar) - VR/RB - KB, LH, SB, SE
Baya Weaver (Ploceus philippinus) - C/RB - Grasslands
Golden Bishop (Euplectes afer) - R/Es - CR
Red Bishop (Euplectes orix) - R/Es - ME
Red-headed Quelea (Quelea erythrops) - VR/Es
[edit]Family Estrildidae (Estrildid finches)
Red Avadavat (Estrilda amandava) - R/IRB - CR, MS, NT, PG, TG
White-capped Munia (Lonchura ferruginosa) - R/Es - PG
Javan Munia (Lonchura leucogastroides) - U/IRB - Grasslands
White-headed Munia (Lonchura maja) - C/RB - Grasslands
Indian Silverbill (Lonchura malabarica) - R/Es - CR
Black-headed Munia (Lonchura malacca) - C/RB - Grasslands
Scaly-breasted Munia (Lonchura punctulata) - C/RB - Grasslands
White-rumped Munia (Lonchura striata) - R/RB - BT, CF, NT, PT, PU, SB, ST, TG
Java Sparrow (Padda oryzivora) - VR/Es - LH, PU
[edit]Family Viduidae (Indigobirds and Whydahs)
Pin-tailed Whydah (Vidua macroura) - R/Es - CR
[edit]Family Fringillidae (True Finches)
Yellow-fronted Canary (Serinus mozambicus) - R/Es - CR, LH, ME, MS, PG, PP, SE
White-rumped Seedeater (Serinus leucopygius) - VR/Es - PG
[edit]Family Emberizidae (Buntings and relatives)
Yellow-breasted Bunting (Emberiza aureola) - VR/WV
[edit]Family Passeridae (Old World sparrows)
House Sparrow (Passer domesticus) - R/IRB - Pasir Panjang, Jurong Island
Eurasian Tree Sparrow (Passer montanus) - VC/RB - Urban area
[edit]See also

List of Singapore mammals
List of Singapore reptiles
List of Singapore amphibians
[edit]References

^ Roselaar, C.S.; J.P. Michels. ". Systematic notes on Asian birds. 48. Nomenclatural chaos untangled, resulting in the naming of the formally undescribed Cacatua species from the Tanimbar Islands, Indonesia (Psittaciformes: Cacatuidae)". Zool. Verh. Leiden 350: 183–196.
[edit]External links

The birds of Singapore Island
National Parks
IUCN red list
ASEAN-BISS
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Categories: Birds of Singapore | Singapore-related lists | Lists of birds by country | Fauna of Singapore
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A Report from birdtours.co.uk
SINGAPORE.     15-16 OCTOBER, 1998, Tim Earl
(This report appears with the permission of Bren McCartney of the Berkshire Birds Web-Pages - see links)

I had a two-day stop-over in Singapore on a birding trip to Australia. Because of the lack of time and my inexperience in Asia I employed a local guide Subaraj Rajathurai (Raj - e-mail: serin@swiftech.com.sg (Subaraj Rajathurai) - for one half-day and a full day's birding. His fee includes meals in local restaurants, refreshments all transport and a superb check-list for use as reference. Raj proved to be an excellent birding companion with humour and considerable knowledge to add to his extraordinary field skills. In the time available I could not have found half the sites or species without him.

15.10.98

A start at 6am when Raj collected me from my hotel and we went, with driver, to Changi Village for the short crossing to Pulau Ubin. We were joined by Oriental Bird Club secretary Brian Sykes at the ferry. There we explored the village area on foot, picking up flocks of long-tailed parakeets flying over, Red jungle-fowl, Common flame-back and Laced woodpeckers and a migrating Japanese Sparrowhawk. We then took to cycles, stopping to investigate bird calls, likely habitat and anything seen as we passed.

Raj's hearing is well tuned to the local calls and helped us get Straw-headed bulbul and Abbot's babbler in the dense secondary vegetation. On reaching the mangrove swamps we used tapes to try and pin down Mangrove whistler (with success) and Mangrove pitta, Pitta megarhyncha, which we did not get. This super habitat yielded a small party of birds which included Ashy and Dark-necked tailorbird, Asian paradise flycatcher, Magpie robin, Pied fantail and Brown-throated sunbird. With a little help from Brian I pulled out Common iora. A call alerted Raj to Stork-billed kingfisher and a stunning Scarlet-backed flowerpecker added to the fun. A tip-off ended the morning with a migrant and most obliging Ruddy kingfisher.

Birds seen in Pulau Ubin forest habitat:

Crested (Oriental) honey buzzard Pernis ptilorhynchus
White-bellied sea-eagle Haliaeetus leucogaster
Japanese sparrowhawk Accipiter gularis L (lifer)
Red jungle-fowl Gallus gallus L
Great crested (Swift) tern Sterna bergii
Lesser crested tern Sterna bengalensis
Spotted dove Streptopelia chinensis
Pink-necked pigeon Treron vernans L
Long-tailed parakeet Psittacula longicauda L
Asian (Common) koel Eudynamys scolopacea L
Ruddy kingfisher Halcyon coromanda L
White-collared kingfisher Halcyon (Todihramphus) chloris
Eastern broad-billed roller (Dollarbird) Eurystomus orientalis
Laced woodpecker Picus vittalus L
Common flameback (goldenback) Dinopium javanense L
Indian house crow Corvus splendens
Large-billed crow Corvus macrohynchos
Black-naped oriole Oriolus chinensis
Asian (Philippine) glossy starling Aplonis panayensis L
Common myna Acridotheries tristis
Javan myna Acridotheres javanicus L
Barn swallow Hirundo rustica
Pacific swallow Hirundo tahitica L
Straw-headed bulbul Pycnonotus zeylanicus L
Olive-winged bulbul Pycnonotus plumosus L
Abbott's babbler Malacocincla abbotti L
Eurasian tree sparrow Passer montanus
Scarlet-backed flowerpecker Dicaeum cruentatum L
Crimson sunbird Aethopyga siparaja L
Birds seen in Pulau Ubin mangrove habitat:

Brahminy kite Haliastur indus L
Common sandpiper Tringa hypoleucos
Greater coucal Centropus sinensis L
Himalayan swiftlet Callocalia brevirostris L
Common kingfisher Alcedo atthis
Stork-billed kingfisher Pelargopsis capensis L
Smyrna (White-throated) kingfisher Halcyon smyrnensis
Blue-tailed bee-eater Merops philippinus
Mangrove whistler Pachycephala grisola L
Pied fantail Rhipidura javanica L
Asian paradise-flycatcher Terpsiphone paradisi L
Indian house crow Corvus splendens
Common iora Aegithina tiphia L
Oriental magpie-robin Copsychus saularis L
Dark-necked tailorbird Orthotomus atrogularis L
Ashy tailorbird Orthotomus sepium L
Arctic warbler Phylloscopus borealis
Plain- (Brown-) throated sunbird Anthreptes malacensis L
Copper-throated sunbird Nectarinia calcostetha L
16.10.98

Another 6am start had us in MacRitchie Reservoir forest before day-break to get excellent views of Collared scops owl and Brown hawk-owl. It started to rain as we set off across the golf course and by the time it finished four hours later I was a little damp. However, we had picked up Greater racket-tailed drongo, Asian fairy-bluebird, Hill and Javan myna and stunning views of sparring White-bellied sea eagles and Brahminy kites. The forest edge yielded Forest wagtail, Striped tit-babbler and one of my all-time top five birds, Siberian blue robin.

MacRitchie Reservoir (forest and golf course)

Brahminy kite Haliastur indus
White-bellied sea-eagle Haliaeetus leucogaster
Long-tailed parakeet Psittacula longicauda
Collared scops owl Otus bakkamoena L
Brown hawk-owl Ninox scutulata L
Grey-rumped treeswift Hemiprocne longipennis L
Edible-nest/Black swiftlet Collocalia fuciphaga/maxima L
Little swift Apus affinis
Common kingfisher Alcedo atthis
Smyrna (White-throated) kingfisher Halcyon smyrnensis
Common flameback (goldenback) Dinopium javanense
Greater racket-tailed drongo Dicrurus paradiseus L
Large-billed crow Corvus macrohynchos
Asian fairy-bluebird Irena puella L
Javan myna Acridotheres javanicus
Hill myna Gracula religiosa L
Asian brown flycatcher Musicapa latirostris
Yellow-rumped flycatcher Ficedula zanthopygia
Siberian blue robin Luscinia cyane
Barn swallow Hirundo rustica
Pacific swallow Hirundo tahitica
Olive-winged bulbul Pycnonotus plumosus
Arctic warbler Phylloscopus borealis
Striped tit-babbler Macronus gularis L
Forest wagtail Dendronanthus indicus L
Plain- (Brown-) throated sunbird Anthreptes malacensis L
Drying off, we went to Sungei Buloh Nature Reserve, a magnificent piece of Singapore tourist attraction. Over brunch we were thrilled by a flock of 45 Oriental pratincoles migrating through with Himalayan swiftlets. From the hide, where we were again joined by Brian Sykes, Terek sandpipers were the top of my wader list (twitched while wringing out saturated socks) while White-fronted waterhens, a Yellow bittern and Slaty-breasted rail added nicely to the growing day-list. Broad-billed sandpipers, Limicola falcinellus, which had been seen in the morning would have been a close second but they had left for mud-flats as the tide dropped before we got there.

Once the rain stopped things started moving with Yellow-breasted prinia, Zebra and Emerald doves, Common and Rufous-tailed tailorbirds starring.

Birds seen at Sungei Buloh:

Little egret Egretta garzetta
Great white egret Egretta alba
Purple heron Ardea purpurea
Cattle egret Ardeola ibis
Striated (Green-backed) heron Butorides striatus
Yellow bittern Ixobrychus sinensis L
Slaty-breasted rail Galliallus striatus L
Bar-tailed godwit Limosa lapponica
Whimbrel Numenius phaeopus
Common redshank Tringa totanus
Marsh sandpiper Tringa stagnatilis
Common greenshank Tringa nebularia
Wood sandpiper Tringa glareola
Terek sandpiper Tringa cinereus
Common sandpiper Tringa hypoleucos
Ruddy turnstone Arenaria interpres
Curlew sandpiper Calidris ferruginea
Oriental pratincole Glareola maldivarum L
Pacific (Asian) golden plover Pluvialis fulva
Little ringed plover Charadrius dubius
Lesser sandplover Charadrius mongolus
Greater sandplover Charadrius leschenaulti
Emerald dove (Green-winged pigeon) Chalcophaps indica L
Zebra (Peaceful) dove Geopelia striata L
Asian (Common) koel Eudynamys scolopacea
Himalayan swiftlet Callocalia brevirostris L
Edible-nest/Black swiftlet Collocalia fuciphaga/maxima L
Pacific (Fork-tailed) swift Apus pacificus
Stork-billed kingfisher Pelargopsis capensis
Black-capped kingfisher Halcyon pileata L
White-collared kingfisher Halcyon (Todihramphus) chloris
Black-naped oriole Oriolus chinensis
Brown shrike Lanius cristatus
Javan myna Acridotheres javanicus
Asian brown flycatcher Musicapa latirostris
Yellow-vented bulbul Pycnonotus goiavier L
Yellow-bellied prinia Prinia flaviventris L
Common tailorbird Orthotomus sutorius L
Rufous-tailed tailorbird Orthotomus sericeus L
Olive-backed sunbird Nectarinia jugularis L
Early afternoon saw us at the Seragoon Estuary searching for Chinese egret (without success) and debating the local Whimbrels' apparent similarity with other Curlew species. lesser coucal and long-tailed shrike were in grasslands close to a river thick with White-winged terns hawking a fly hatch with Pacific and Barn swallows.

Birds seen on the Serangoon Estuary:

Little grebe Tachybaptus ruficollis
Grey heron Ardea cinerea
Cinnamon bittern Ixobrychus cinnamomeus L
Osprey Pandion haliaetus
White-browed crake Porzana cinerea L
Common redshank Tringa totanus
White-winged black tern Chlidonias leucoptera
Little tern Sterna albifrons
Rock dove (feral pigeon) Columba livia
Red collared (turtle) dove Streptopelia tranquebarica L
Lesser coucal Centropus bengalensis L
Long-tailed shrike Lanius schach L
Yellow wagtail Motacilla flava flavissima
A visit to a sewage settling pond (which by now will have been filled in by the development work going on) produced Cinnamon bittern and White-browed crake (found by Brian and giving stonking views). Red collared doves were feeding with the local pigeons, watched by Scaly-breasted munias in nearby tall grass.

A few hundred yards away the grass habitat of long disused settling ponds were most productive with Black-headed and White-headed munias, Baya and Streaked weavers, Oriental pipit, Barred buttonquail, Pallas's grasshopper and Oriental reed warblers.

Birds seen at the old sewage ponds, Serangoon Estuary:

Barred buttonquail Turnix suscitator L
Little swift Apus affinis
Blue-tailed bee-eater Merops philippinus
Barn swallow Hirundo rustica
Pacific swallow Hirundo tahitica
Fan-tailed warbler (Zitting cisticola) Cisticola juncidis
Pallas's grasshopper warbler Locustella certhiola
Oriental reed warbler Acrocephalus orientalis L
Scaly-breasted munia Lonchura punctulata L
Black-headed (Chestnut) munia Lonchura malacca L
White-headed munia Lonchura maja L
Oriental (Paddyfield) pipit Anthus rufulus L
Streaked weaver Ploceus manjar L
Baya weaver Ploceus philippinus L
As the day drew to a close we stopped at Loyang Camp for brilliant performances by the following:

Red-breasted parakeet Psittacula alexandri L
Tanimbar (Goffin's) cockatoo * Cacatua goffini L
Coppersmith barbet Megalaima haemacephala L
Asian (Philippine) glossy starling Aplonis panayensis
Our last stop was in forest near the Botanical Gardens where we had a second Ruddy kingfisher, Brown-chested jungle-flycatcher and a roosting Changeable hawk-eagle.

Birds seen in forest close to the Botanical Gardens:

Changeable hawk-eagle Spizaetus cirrhatus L
Ruddy kingfisher Halcyon coromanda
Blue-tailed bee-eater Merops philippinus
Hill myna Gracula religiosa
Brown-chested jungle-flycatcher Rhinomyias brunneata L
Three hours later I was on an excellent British Airways flight back to London.

In total I had seen 122 species of which 70 were lifers.

SINGAPORE LIST:

Little grebe Tachybaptus ruficollis
Little egret Egretta garzetta
Great white egret Egretta alba
Grey heron Ardea cinerea
Purple heron Ardea purpurea
Cattle egret Ardeola ibis
Striated (Green-backed) heron Butorides striatus
Yellow bittern Ixobrychus sinensis
Cinnamon bittern Ixobrychus cinnamomeus
Osprey Pandion haliaetus
Crested (Oriental) honey buzzard Pernis ptilorhynchus
Brahminy kite Haliastur indus
White-bellied sea-eagle Haliaeetus leucogaster
Japanese sparrowhawk Accipiter gularis
Changeable hawk-eagle Spizaetus cirrhatus
Red jungle-fowl Gallus gallus
Barred buttonquail Turnix suscitator
Slaty-breasted rail Galliallus striatus
White-browed crake Porzana cinerea
Bar-tailed godwit Limosa lapponica
Whimbrel Numenius phaeopus
Common redshank Tringa totanus
Marsh sandpiper Tringa stagnatilis
Common greenshank Tringa nebularia
Wood sandpiper Tringa glareola
Terek sandpiper Tringa cinereus
Common sandpiper Tringa hypoleucos
Ruddy turnstone Arenaria interpres
Curlew sandpiper Calidris ferruginea
Oriental pratincole Glareola maldivarum
Pacific (Asian) golden plover Pluvialis fulva
Little ringed plover Charadrius dubius
Lesser sandplover Charadrius mongolus
Greater sandplover Charadrius leschenaulti
White-winged black tern Chlidonias leucoptera
Great crested (Swift) tern Sterna bergii
Lesser crested tern Sterna bengalensis
Little tern Sterna albifrons
Rock dove (feral pigeon) Columba livia
Spotted dove Streptopelia chinensis
Red collared (turtle) dove Streptopelia tranquebarica
Emerald dove (Green-winged pigeon) Chalcophaps indica
Pink-necked pigeon Treron vernans
Zebra (Peaceful) dove Geopelia striata
Red-breasted parakeet Psittacula alexandri
Long-tailed parakeet Psittacula longicauda
Tanimbar (Goffin's) cockatoo * Cacatua goffini
Asian (Common) koel Eudynamys scolopacea
Greater coucal Centropus sinensis
Lesser coucal Centropus bengalensis
Collared scops owl Otus bakkamoena
Brown hawk-owl Ninox scutulata
Grey-rumped treeswift Hemiprocne longipennis
Himalayan swiftlet Callocalia brevirostris
Edible-nest/Black swiftlet Collocalia fuciphaga/maxima
Pacific (Fork-tailed) swift Apus pacificus
Little swift Apus affinis
Common kingfisher Alcedo atthis
Stork-billed kingfisher Pelargopsis capensis
Ruddy kingfisher Halcyon coromanda
Smyrna (White-throated) kingfisher Halcyon smyrnensis
Black-capped kingfisher Halcyon pileata
White-collared kingfisher Halcyon (Todihramphus) chloris
Blue-tailed bee-eater Merops philippinus
Eastern broad-billed roller (Dollarbird) Eurystomus orientalis
Coppersmith barbet Megalaima haemacephala
Laced woodpecker Picus vittalus
Common flameback (goldenback) Dinopium javanense
Mangrove whistler Pachycephala grisola
Pied fantail Rhipidura javanica
Asian paradise-flycatcher Terpsiphone paradisi
Greater racket-tailed drongo Dicrurus paradiseus
Indian house crow Corvus splendens
Large-billed crow Corvus macrohynchos
Common iora Aegithina tiphia
Black-naped oriole Oriolus chinensis
Pied triller Lalage nigra
Asian fairy-bluebird Irena puella
Brown shrike Lanius cristatus
Long-tailed shrike Lanius schach
Asian (Philippine) glossy starling Aplonis panayensis
Common myna Acridotheries tristis
Javan myna Acridotheres javanicus
Hill myna Gracula religiosa
Brown-chested jungle-flycatcher Rhinomyias brunneata
Asian brown flycatcher Musicapa latirostris
Yellow-rumped flycatcher Ficedula zanthopygia
Siberian blue robin Luscinia cyane
Oriental magpie-robin Copsychus saularis
Barn swallow Hirundo rustica
Pacific swallow Hirundo tahitica
Straw-headed bulbul Pycnonotus zeylanicus
Yellow-vented bulbul Pycnonotus goiavier
Olive-winged bulbul Pycnonotus plumosus
Fan-tailed warbler (Zitting cisticola) Cisticola juncidis
Yellow-bellied prinia Prinia flaviventris
Pallas's grasshopper warbler Locustella certhiola
Oriental reed warbler Acrocephalus orientalis
Common tailorbird Orthotomus sutorius
Dark-necked tailorbird Orthotomus atrogularis
Rufous-tailed tailorbird Orthotomus sericeus
Ashy tailorbird Orthotomus sepium
Arctic warbler Phylloscopus borealis
Abbott's babbler Malacocincla abbotti
Striped tit-babbler Macronus gularis
Eurasian tree sparrow Passer montanus
Scaly-breasted munia Lonchura punctulata
Black-headed (Chestnut) munia Lonchura malacca
White-headed munia Lonchura maja
Forest wagtail Dendronanthus indicus
Yellow wagtail Motacilla flava flavissima
Oriental (Paddyfield) pipit Anthus rufulus
Streaked weaver Ploceus manjar
Baya weaver Ploceus philippinus
Scarlet-backed flowerpecker Dicaeum cruentatum
Plain- (Brown-) throated sunbird Anthreptes malacensis
Purple-throated sunbird Nectarinia sperata
Copper-throated sunbird Nectarinia calcostetha
Olive-backed sunbird Nectarinia jugularis
Crimson sunbird Aethopyga siparaja
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BIRDS OF SINGAPORE

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Order
Columbiformes
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Columbidae


Spotted Dove
© Slim Sreedharan


Spotted Dove sunning itself
© Yeow Chin Wee


Spotted Dove courtship feeding
© Yeow Chin Wee



Bird Ecology Study Group

Bird Topography
following Delacour (1947)
To report an error, to provide new information, or make any comment, please e-mail me at: slim.sreedharan@gmail.com

Species: Spotted Dove Streptopelia chinensis
Other common names: Tigrine Dove, Spotted-necked Dove, Malay Spotted Dove.

Taxonomy: Streptopelia chinensis (Scopoli) 1786, China.

Sub-species & Distribution: Three races are currently recognised. Found in Pakistan, Nepal and India, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, China, Taiwan, Myanmar, and SE Asia to the Greater and Lesser Sundas, and the Philippines, introduced to California, Hawaii and Australia. Only one race is found in this region:

tigrina (Temminck) 1810, Java. Found in India, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Thailand, West Malaysia, Sumatra, Java, Borneo, Sulawesi, Bali and the Philippines.
Size: 10 to 11" (26 to 28 cm). Sexes alike.

Description: Head and face vinous-pink, greyer around eyes, crown, on lores, forehead and base of lower bill. A very broad collar across the neck and nape extends to both sides of throat, its black feathers broadly tipped white to produce a chequer-board pattern. Upper back, scapulars, lesser and median coverts greyish-brown with dark shaft streaks. Primaries and primary coverts brownish-black, secondaries browner, tertials and inner greater coverts ashy-brown with black shaft streaks. Lesser, median and outer greater coverts edged white on outer webs forming a white wing patch. Lower back and rump ashy-brown with black markings, uppertail coverts darker. The central pair of tail feathers ashy-brown, the next pair blackish-brown with indistinct paler tips, the rest with broad white tips that are most noticeable when the bird takes flight or when it lands. Chin white tinged pinkish. Throat, breast and flanks vinous-pink, grading to creamy buff on lower belly, and paler on the vent and undertail coverts. Underwing coverts dark sooty grey, bluish-grey on leading edge of the wing.

Immature birds: Duller and browner above, the spots around neck much less distinct or almost absent, the wing coverts edged buffy-rufous.

Soft parts: Iris pinkish-buff, orbital ring red. Bill dark, blackish horn. Tarsi and feet purplish-pink, soles dirty buff.

Similar species: The only similar species, the Peaceful Dove Geopelia striata, is easily distinguished by its much smaller size, and its more terrestrial habits.

Status, Habitat & Behaviour: Resident, common and widespread throughout Singapore, large numbers having been imported to support the cage bird industry (Wang & Hails 2007).

Usually seen singly or in pairs, occasionally in small family parties, walking along roads and paths, searching for food. it has been known to congregate into much larger flocks in peninsular Malaysia (Bucknill & Chasen 1927).

It is found in open country around human settlements, wherever there are patches of short grass and bushes, cultivated areas or rice fields, but not in the jungle or in mangroves. In Sarawak, it has been recorded to 1600 m. They are very tame and are easily approachable, often being seen on lawns and grassy areas in gardens, villages and towns, mostly on the ground, walking along roads and paths, searching for food. When disturbed, they usually take off vertically upwards with an explosive clap of its wings, usually flying up into the nearest tree or, often, settling on the ground just a short distance away. Its flight is strong and direct. When landing, its wings are outstretched in a braking movement, it tail is fanned wide, clearly revealing the white tips to its feathers.

Food: Its diet consists largely of grain, grass and other seeds, also some insects..

Voice and Calls: Its call is a soft musical cooing note, cuck-cuck-crooo-cruck, generally repeated three or four times.

Breeding: They appear to breed all year round. Several courtship and pair-bonding rituals have been noted, such as allopreening (Wee 2007), and the ruffling up of feathers at the back of the nape, and bowing the head low into the chest with each call. The display flight consists of a flight straight up into the air, then a glide downwards with wings and tail stiffly spread (Bucknill & Chasen 1927). Nests have been found as low as 3 feet above ground level but, more usually, are placed 10 to 20 feet up a small shrub or bamboo clump, also in the forks of roadside trees, sometimes quite close to open ground. In Singapore (Mok 2008), as in India, they often nest in the eaves and ledges of town houses. Its nest, like that of most pigeons, is quite flimsy. Using a few twigs for a foundation (Amar-Singh 2010), some finer twigs, small roots, coarse grasses as well as weed stems, are interwoven to form a fragile and almost transparent platform just 2 or 3 cm. deep and about 15 cm. across. The normal clutch consists of two white glossy oval-shaped eggs, 28 x 21 mm in size. Both parents share duties in nest building, incubation and care of young. Incubation takes 13 to 15 days. The nestlings, covered with yellowish hair-like down, are fed by regurgitated crop milk, a secretion produced by the parents (Chan 2007).

Moult: Birds in wing moult were taken on 19 February - moulting P1), and 23 April - moulting P3 and P4 (Medway & Wells 1976). A breeding bird in wing moult was trapped at Sungei Buloh on 23 July.

Measurements: (n=2)
Wing: 139 - 142 mm Bill: 21 mm Tarsus: 23 - 24 mm
Tail: 135 - 140 mm Weight: 134 - 172 gms Tarsus diameter: 4.3 - 5.1 mm

Pigeons and doves

Order Columbiformes (Pigeons)
Family Columbidae (Pigeons)
The sandgrouse used to be grouped in the same order but has since been separated (Order Pteroclidiformes) and placed between the waders and pigeons. This order contains not only pigeons but also the extinct dodos. The passenger pigeon of North America joined the extinct dodos in 1914. There is really no good distinction between pigeons and doves, although the latter are generally smaller. We'll use 'pigeon' to refer to both. Pigeons are see-eaters or frugivores. They produce crop milk to feed their chicks. The world has 308 species of pigeons.

There are 12 species to be found in Singapore. The most common is the Rock Pigeon. The Zebra and Spotted Doves are two very common brown pigeons in Singapore. They can be distinguished by their size and body patterns. The Spotted Dove is larger and has spots on the back of the neck, while the Zebra Dove is smaller and has bars at the back of the neck. The Red Collared Dove does look like a brown pigeon at a distance, but up close they look red (female looks brown) and there is a black collar instead of spots and bars. The next pigeon one is likely to encounter is the Pink-necked Green Pigeon. This is a colourful pigeon. The other 7 are uncommon or rare.

Zebra Dove (Geopelia striata)

(Tan KH)

It was previously confused with the Peaceful Dove (Geopelia placida), which is native to Australia. They look alike and both are greyish-brown with bars all over the body, as well as the blue skin around the eyes. A popular caged bird in Singapore.

Common resident breeder
Length: 20-22cm
Habitat: Urban area
Native Distribution: Peninsula Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia
Introduced Distribution: Hawaii (1922), Philippines, Seychelles

Spotted Dove (Streptopelia chinensis)

(Lau SY)

Formerly known as Spotted-necked Dove because of the spots on the back of the neck. This native to South Asia has been introduced to other countries. It is a frequently poached bird in Singapore and is a popular caged bird, eventhough they can only coo.

Abundant resident breeder
Length: 28-32cm
Flight: Strong swift direct with rapid wing beats
Habitat: Urban area
Native Distribution: India, Sri Lanka to S China to SE Asia
Introduced Distribution: SW CA, US (1917), Indonesia, Australia, New Zealand
Nest: Stick nest in tree
Diet: Seed

Red Collared Dove (Streptopelia tranquebarica)

Male at Tampines (Danny Lau) Male at Lor Halus (Tan KH)
Also known as the Red Turtle Dove. The male has a reddish body with black collar on the back of the neck and bluish-grey head, rump and uppertail. The female is more reddish-brown all over. Juvenile is like the female but without a collar. This bird is not native to Singapore, but is doing well in dry open areas like Lorong Halus, Changi grassland, Neo Tiew Lane, Pulau Ubin.

Common introduced resident breeder
Length: 23cm
Habitat: open grassland
Distribution: S Asia
Diet: Seed

Emerald Dove (Chalcophaps indica)

Male Emerald Dove. Left: Sime Forest (Con Foley), centre: Sime Forest (Danny Lau), right: Sungei Buloh (Danny Lau)


Juvenile at Kranji Nature Trail (Danny Lau)

Also known as Green-winged Pigeon. Can be seen on the ground along trails in forests and mangroves. They have emerald green back and wings, pinkish-brown head and body. The male has a grey cap which the female lacks. Juvenile like female. Sighted at Sime Forest, Sungei Buloh, Bukit Timah, Pulau Ubin.

Uncommon resident
Length: 23-28cm
Habitat: Forest, mangrove
Distribution: India to Indonesia, N, E Australia
Nest: Stick nest in tree
Diet: Seed, fruit

Jambu Fruit Dove (Ptilinopus jambu)

Female, Bukit Batok Nature Park (Tan KH) Female, Sime Forest (Yamane Yoshio)

Juvenile, Botanic Gardens (Lau SY) Female, Panti Forest (Danny Lau)

Chinese Garden. Left Male, Right Female (Tan GC)

They have white eye ring, yellow bill, green upperpart. The male has a dark pink face, pink breast and white underpart. The female has a light purple face, green breast, white belly. The juvenile is like female but with green face. Unlike the emerald doves, they are found in trees instead of on the ground. Can be found at Sime Forest, Bukit Batok Nature Park, Botanic Gardens, Japanese Garden.

Uncommon non-breeding visitor
Length: 23-27cm
Habitat: Mangrove, forest, woodland
Distribution: S Thailand, Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia
Nest: Stick-and-grass nest in tree
Diet: Fruit

Thick-billed Green Pigeon (Treron curvirostra)

Male at Sime forest Jelutong tower (Yamane Yoshio). Left male, right female at Bukit Timah Summit (Tan GC).


Nee Soon Swamp. Left female, right male (Danny Lau)

The male has maroon wings, green eye skin patch and green underpart. The female is green all over. Central Catchment is one sure place to see this bird.

Uncommon resident breeder
Length: 25-27cm
Habitat: Forest
Distribution: Indian subcontinent, China, SE Asia

Cinnamon-headed Green Pigeon (Treron fulvicollis)

Male at Vita-Penawar Plantation near Desaru (Tan GC).


Left: Male, Right: female at Panti, Malaysia (Lau JS)

The male has bright orange head and maroon wings, while the female is green all over. Might be extinct in Thailand. Sighted at Pulau Ubin, Sungei Buloh.

Rare non-breeding visitor
Length: 25-26cm
Habitat: Forest, mangrove, wooded area
Distribution: Myanmar, Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia, Brunei

Little Green Pigeon (Treron olax)

Females left (Danny Lau), male right (Tan KH) at Panti, Malaysia

Also has maroon wings, but lacks the eye patch and has a grey head and orange breast. Like most green-pigeon females, the female is green all over. Sighted at Bukit Timah, Central Catchment.

Rare resident
Length: 20cm
Habitat: Forest
Distribution: Thailand, Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia

Pink-necked Green Pigeon (Treron vernans)

Left: male, Right: females (Lau SY)


Male (Tan KH) Female (Tan KH) Male (Fong CW)
A very common bird in wooded area regardless of forest, mangrove, garden or urban area. Looks like Rock Pigeon, but much more colourful. The male has a pink neck, orange breast, green belly and wings. The female is green overall. Juvenile like female.

Common resident breeder
Length: 30-35cm
Habitat: Garden, wooded area, forest, mangrove, urban area
Distribution: SE Asia

Rock Pigeon (Columba livia)

(Tan KH) (Lau SY)
Previously known as Rock Dove, it is officially known as Rock Pigeon now. It is commonly simply called 'pigeon'. In Singapore, it is feral, which means their ancestors escaped from domestication into the wild. Being highly adaptable, they have been successfully introduced to all over the world. They have many morphs, from all white to black-and-white, white-and-brown to blue-and-grey. Due to their uncanning ability to return to their point of release, they were used as homing pigeons. They were also bred for food. They are now more of a pest and their droppings carry diseases.

Abundant introduced resident breeder
Length: 30-35cm
Wingspan: 62-68cm
Habitat: Cliffs (wild), Urban (feral)
Distribution: Native to W, S Europe, N Africa, SW Asia; introduced all over the world
Nest: Grass on ledge in cave (wild), building (feral)
Diet: Seeds, grains, bread

Pied Imperial Pigeon (Ducula bicolor)

Zoo (Tan GC)

This large pigeon is almost all white except for the black flight feathers and tail. A flock of free-ranging pigeons from the birdpark has been spotted around Jurong area (e.g. Jurong Lake, Poyan). Other places are southern islands, Labrador Park, Bukit Batok West.

Rare non-breeding visitor
Length: 37-44cm
Habitat: Island, mangrove, forest, woodland
Distribution: Nicobar Island to New Guinea, Australia
Nest: Stick nest in tree
Diet: Fruit

Green Imperial Pigeon (Ducula aenea)

1 Green Imperial Pigeon with 2 Pied Imperial Pigeons at Jurong Birdpark (Tan KH)

A large pigeon with white head and underpart, and green back, wings and tail. Sexes similar. Sighted at Bukit Batok Nature Park.

Rare accidental
Length: 40-45cm
Habitat: Upper canopy of forest
Distribution: India to Indonesia
Nest: Stick nest in tree
Diet: Fruit

Pigeons outside Singapore

Mourning Doves, Boise, US (Tan KH) Eurasian Collared Dove, India (Lau SY)

Lesser Cuckoo-dove, Fraser's Hill, Malaysia (Tan GC) Mountain Imperial Pigeons, Genting, Malaysia (Tan GC)

Wedge-tailed Green Pigeon, Fraser's Hill, Malaysia (Con Foley) Oriental Turtle Dove, Japan (Yamane Yoshio)
 
Crested Pigeon, Adelaide, Australia (Tan KH)  

How Psychotechnology Works
by John Fuller
Sebastian Willnow/AFP/Getty ImagesStanislavs Bardins of Munich's Ludwig-Maximilians-University demonstrates the prototype of a video camera controlled by the eyes in Hanover, Germany. The camera could be used in application fields of psychology and market research.
Why do we do the things we do? It's a question psychologists have been asking for centuries. For the most part, the connection between the body and the mind has remained a mystery to us. How we perceive the world and learn new things still fascinates and confounds us. Are we born with certain qualities, or are we the product of our experiences and upbringing? How do we form an idea, gather information and learn to adapt?
Since there's no simple way to see what goes on in our minds, scientists use one of the major branches of psychology to attempt to make sense of it: theoretical psychology. Just like theoretical physics, this type of psychology allows us to hypothesize about something we can't quite visualize. That, of course, doesn't stop people from arguing about each other's ideas, but at least theoretical psychology tries to move things forward.
Mind Technology
Virtual Medicine
Brain Advertisements
Curiosity Project: 5 Ways Science is Studying the Brain
When scientists want to see actual numbers and data that back up those ideas and principles, however, they turn to applied psychology. Because we can't conduct psychological tests or studies on ourselves, we can perform tests on individuals or groups in order to make sense of our actions and understand the processes of the mind. Psychological testing gives us tangible data, or psychometrics, to work with, helping us to grasp the more intangible aspects of the psyche. Its uses are broad: People use psychological testing in areas like education, the workplace, counseling and health.
Psychologists look to study the behavior of people in certain situations in the hopes of understanding, predicting and even controlling human thought processes and emotions. To do so, they use a wide range of tools, commonly known as psychotechnology, to reach various conclusions regarding the mind. What are these tools? What specifically are they used for? Are there any negative aspects or misuses of such technology? To learn how psychologists dive into our minds, read on.
Psychotechnology in Practice
Because it's such a loose term, psychotechnology encompasses a broad spectrum of tools. Technology doesn't imply just computers and fancy gadgets; some of the most important factors psychologists can apply to subjects are the straightforward guidelines of tests and the data one receives from those tests.
Indeed, some of the simplest technologies have led to the more important discoveries in psychological thinking. One of the most famous examples of applied psychology occurred when Russian research physiologist Ivan Pavlov was studying digestion in animals, particularly dogs. During the early 1900s, Pavlov was researching gastric reflexes -- the secretion of gastric juices upon eating food -- in canines. He was able to do this by surgically implanting small pouches into the laboratory dog's stomachs, which would collect the juices while keeping food from contaminating any samples.
Before going through with any tests, however, Pavlov was confronted with a slight nuisance. The dogs, whether or not there was food in the room, would start salivating; all it took was an assistant to walk into the room, and the samples in the dog's pouch would be corrupted.
Pavlov's main area of study was the physical nature of reflexes, and he reportedly detested the entire field of psychology, firing employees for using any psychological language. But he couldn't ignore this interesting reflex. He decided to put the dogs in a room by themselves, keeping human presence out of the way so as not to signal the possibility of food. After a buzzer sounded, however, food was dropped through a chute into a dish, somewhere between five and 35 seconds later. At first, the dogs showed a normal reflex, pricking their ears at the sound of the buzzer. But after just a few of these tests, the buzzer would trigger a dog's urge to salivate, whether or not food had arrived. While a dog salivating at the presence of food in its mouth is what Pavlov called an "unconditioned response" -- a natural reflex built into an animal's psyche -- his experiment was a "conditioned response." A trigger as simple as a buzzer highlighted the process of learning behavior, which were "a long chain of conditioned reflexes" built into the mind over time.
One of the most commonly known forms of psychotechnology is the standardized test. Most people know about intelligence quotient, or IQ, tests, which give theoretical scores that measure a person's memory and language, spatial and mathematical abilities. High school students looking to get accepted into a university are most likely familiar with the SAT, or the Standard Aptitude Test. While these tests are typically used by educational institutions to gather data on intelligence and compare scores, business and industry organizations often use standardized testing to survey employees or analyze performance.
Time & Life Pictures/Getty ImagesClinical psychologist Albert Carlin, co-creator of cyber therapy, an approach to treating phobias through virtual reality, posing over a virtual screen peppered with spiders in the University of Washington Human Interface Technology Laboratory.
Of course, electronics and gadgets still have their place in psychological testing. For example, psychiatric professors at Oxford University used cell phones and text messaging to study and help patients with bipolar disorder. Again, the professors devised a simple method for monitoring patient's moods -- staff members at the mental health center sent text messages once a week to patients, asking them to respond with a report on how they're feeling. If someone is experiencing difficulties, according to the staff, text messaging notifies the staff quicker and reduces the anxiety of planning appointments [source: Grohol]. Video games and virtual reality are also an important part of psychotechnology -- combat games that simulate battle conditions help soldiers suffering from Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) and let psychologists record important reactions.
There are several practical uses of psychotechnology, but when does it present problems? To read about the potential misuses of psychotechnology, see the next page.
Controversial Uses of Psychotechnology
If you've ever seen Stanley Kubrick's controversial film adaptation of Anthony Burgess's novel, "A Clockwork Orange," you might have a negative impression of psychotechnology. In both the novel and the film, a young teenager named Alex spends his time hanging out with his "droogs" -- slang for friends -- and committing atrocious acts of "ultraviolence." Alex and his droogs have a general disregard for law, order and authority, but one night, in the middle of a robbery, Alex kills a woman and is arrested. He is sent to jail for 14 years, but after completing a just two years of his sentence, Alex hears of a rehabilitation program, called the "Ludovico Technique," that will cure him of any urge to commit crime. Alex agrees, unaware of the horrifying, drug-induced treatment he'll have to undergo. Staff members at the prison affix a contraption to his head, keeping his eyes open and forcing him to watch horrifying images. The drugs he's been forced to take make him sick while watching these films, essentially conditioning him to retch at the possibility of violence.
Burgess and Kubrick were creating an imaginary, dystopian world to offer social satire, but is there anything like this in real life? Although most current societies haven't descended into authoritarian chaos, most examples of psychological testing eventually come with their share of controversy.
East News/Getty ImagesA volunteer is prepared for tests in the laboratory for psycho-physiological research at the Shikhany research center near the town of Saratov, Russia.
One of the most recent examples of fear and skepticism comes from the U.S. Department of Homeland Security and its interest in the Russian-based Psychotechnology Research Institute, located in the country's capital, Moscow. The institute developed an anti-terrorism technology called Semantic Stimuli Response Measurements Technology, or SSRM Tek.
According to a Wired magazine article, the software is a simple computer game that flashes quick, essentially unnoticeable subliminal images across the screen -- pictures of Osama bin Laden or the World Trade Center, for instance. A person taking the test presses a button in response to the images, without taking the time to think about what he or she is seeing. According to the institute, the test is able to detect a subtle difference between a terrorist's involuntary response and that of an innocent person's. The technology has been marketed as a useful system in airports, where flyers would take the test at checkpoints. Those registering a suspicious response would have to undergo extra checks.
Some argue, though, that no electronic technology can correctly pick terrorists and identify other complex traits and behaviors in humans; according to neuroscientist Geoff Schoenbaum, modern psychology is "still working at the level of how rats learn that light predicts food," the same concept physiologist Ivan Pavlov worked on more than a century ago with dogs. Many worry that any errors in these kinds of psychological tests could lead to mistaken accusations, something the scientific community and proponents of psychotechnology would like to avoid.
For lots more information on the mind and its state, see the next page.
Lots More Information
Related HowStuffWorks Articles
How Your Brain Works
How Dreams Work
How Smell Works
How Taste Works
How Hearing Works
How Vision Works
How Brain-Computer Interfaces Work
Have scientists found a way to read your mind?
How can doctors use virtual reality to treat phobias?
Why would you suddenly mistake your family members for impostors?
How does your brain impact your survival chances in the wilderness?
More Great Links
PsychCentral.com
Sources
French, Andrew. "Patients text messages win award." Oxford Mail. July 7, 2008. http://www.oxfordmail.net/display.var.2382994.0.patients_text_messages_win_award.php
Grohol, John. "Text messaging for bipolar disorder." PsychCentral.com. July 9, 2008.http://psychcentral.com/blog/archives/2008/07/09/text-messaging-for-bipolar-disorder/
Hunt, Morton. The Story of Psychology. New York: Anchor Books, 2007.
Jardin, Xeni. "Virtual reality therapy for combat stress." NPR.org. Aug. 19, 2005.http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=4806921
Weinberger, Sharon. "The weird Russian mind-control research behind a DHS contract." Wired. Sept. 20, 2007. http://www.wired.com/politics/security/news/2007/09/mind_reading